HOME    OF    THE    EDUCATIONAL    ALLIANCE JEWISH 

NEW   YORK 


THE  IMMIGRANT  JEW 
IN  AMERICA 


BY 


EDMUND  J.  JAMES,   A.M.,  PH.D.,  LL.D. 

PRESIDENT  OF  THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  ILLINOIS 

OSCAR  R.   FLYNN,  B.Sc. 

DEPARTMENT  OF  CHEMISTRY,   HIGH  SCHOOL  OF  COMMERCE,  NEW  YORK 

DR.  J.  R.  PAULDING 
MRS.  SIMON  N.  PATTON 

(CHARLOTTE  KIMBALL) 

FORMERLY  HEAD  WORKER,  NEIGHBORHOOD  HOUSE,  LOUISVILLE,   KENTUCKY 

WALTER  SCOTT  ANDREWS,  M.A. 


j\':vt  i  a  vi  rs\ 
ISSUED  BY  THE  LIBERAL  IMMIGRATION  LEAGUE 

150  NASSAU  STREET,  NEW  YORK 


PRICE,   $1.59 


NEW  YORK 

B.   F.   BUCK   &   COMPANY 

160  FIFTH  AVENUE 

1906 


Copyright,  1906,  by 
BENJ.  F.  BUCK,  NEW  YORK 


PREFACE 


The  study  of  the  immigrant  Jew  in  America  undertaken  in 
this  work  has  been  subdivided  designedly  to  assure  a  com 
petence  and  accuracy  of  report  beyond  the  possible  attain 
ment  of  any  single  investigator.  Absolutely  no  restriction 
beyond  the  necessary  limitation  of  space  was  imposed  on 
any  contributor,  for  none  were  engaged  whose  reliability  and 
special  knowledge  of  the  assigned  field  of  inquiry  were  open 
to  question.  The  consequent  independence  of  view  gives  ex 
ceptional  weight  to  the  substantial  concurrence  of  the  reports 
in  each  division  of  the  field  in  their  exhibit  of  the  character 
istics,  conditions,  and  advance  of  the  Jewish  emigration  to 
this  country  from  Eussia. 

Our  work  begins  with  a  clear  marking  of  the  distinct  ele 
ments  of  the  Jewish  population  in  the  United  States.  This 
is  followed  by  an  informing  exhibit  of  the  Jew  and  his  en 
vironment  in  Russia  and  of  the  oppression  which  has  fet 
tered  his  progress  and  denied  him  even  a  bare  pittance  and 
right  to  life,  irresistibly  forcing  him  to  seek  a  refuge  and 
home  in  other  lands.  This  general  introduction  closes  with 
a  comprehensive  survey  of  the  entry  of  the  persecuted  immi 
grant  into  the  United  States  and  the  progress  of  his  adapta 
tion  to  the  novel  conditions  of  life  in  this  land  of  the  free. 

In  the  following  divisions  of  the  work  the  studies  of  char 
acteristics  and  condition  are  pursued  in  detail.  The  chief 
seats  of  Jewish  settlement  in  this  country,  in  New  York, 
Philadelphia,  and  Chicago,  are  selected  for  the  range  of  their 
exhibits,  presenting  the  struggles  and  progress  of  the  Jew 
under  the  most  exacting  conditions  of  living  and  competition 
in  this  country. 

These  settlements  are  first  surveyed  broadly  with  graphic 
presentations  of  the  general  aspect.  Then  in  succession  the 
social  conditions  and  life  are  presented  under  the  headings 
of  philanthropy,  covering  the  organizations  of  relief  and  the 
promotion  of  self-help,  economic  and  industrial  conditions, 
religious  activity,  educational  influences,  amusements  and 
social  life,  politics,  health  and  sanitation,  law  and  litigation. 

3 

A  A  O  -'}  r.  ^ 


PREFACE 


In  the  closing  division  of  the  work  the  present  distribution 
of  the  Jew  in  America  is  considered,  and  the  methods  in  force 
for  its  promotion  are  described.  The  rural  settlements  of 
the  Jews  in  the  Eastern  and  Western  States  are  carefully 
considered,  and  the  evidence  clearly  demonstrates  the  feasi 
bility  of  a  much  more  wide  ranging  and  thorough  distribu 
tion  than  has  heretofore  been  effected,  and  urgently  impresses 
the  importance  of  adequate  provision  for  this  need,  which 
our  national  government  should  unhesitatingly  promote. 

No  survey  of  this  subject  which  approaches  this  investi 
gation  in  compass  has  heretofore  been  attempted.     The  sus 
tained  effort  is  clearly  for  the  thorough  probing  of  existing 
social  conditions  and  accuracy  of  reporting,  irrespective  of 
possible  effect.    This  characteristic  thoroughness  of  examina- 
'   Ition  and  faithfulness  of  portrayal  make  this  exhibit  of  the 
fEussian  Jew  in  this  country  a  compendious  text-book  for  all 
I  students  of  our  complex  sociology,  and  a  reference  work  indis 
pensable  to  all  who  are  called  upon  to  discuss  or  write  or 
/legislate  on  the  subject  of  immigration  and  social  conditions 
/  in  this  country. 

The  conclusions  reached  by  the  investigators  fully  sustain 
the  just  appreciations  of  the  character  of  the  Jewish  race  and 
its  certain  advance  in  this  country,  which  were  so  memorably 
furnished  by  ex-President  Grover  Cleveland,  President  Eliot 
of  Harvard  University,  Bishop  Lawrence,  and  others,  on  the 
occasion  of  the  commemoration  of  the  two  hundred  and 
fiftieth  anniversary  of  the  settlement  of  the  Jews  in  the 
.United  States.  "  For  the  whole  civilized  world,"  as  Presi- 
(dent  Eliot  observes,  "this  race  has  been  the  source  of  all 
j  the  highest  conceptions  of  God,  man,  and  nature,"  and,  "  if 
ever  any  race  came  hither  in  search  of  liberty  and  equality 
before  the  law,  and  of  the  safety  and  prosperity  which  in 
dustry  and  virtue  can  win  in  a  fresh  land  under  just  con 
ditions,  it  is  the  Jews  who  have  come  to  the  United  States 
since  1880." 

President  Eliot  attributes  the  extraordinary  Jewish  power 
of  endurance  and  survival  to  their  religious  faith  and  the 
singular  purity,  tenderness,  and  devotion  of  their  family  rela 
tions.  No  one  will  underrate  the  importance  of  these  fac 
tors,  but  there  must  enter  into  the  reckoning  also,  as  our 
contributors  point  out,  the  effect  of  the  conditions  and  en 
vironment  of  the  life  of  the  European  Jew  for  nearly  two 
thousand  years.  Variety  of  climate,  repeated  changes  of 
habit,  and  attempts  at  acclimatization  have  wrought  great 


PREFACE  5 

changes  in  the  physical  organization  of  the  race.  Cruel  weed- 
ing-out  processes  under  the  ban  of  persecution  have  destroyed 
the  weaker  ones  and  keenly  sharpened  the  senses  and  devel 
oped  the  brains  of  those  brave  and  enduring  enough  to  with 
stand  the  strain.  Only  those  most  resistant  to  the  effects  of 
disease,  those  who  could  adapt  themselves  most  surely  and 
quickly  to  hard  conditions,  survived.  Thus  the  exhibit  of  the 
modern  Jew  is,  in  a  word,  an  illustration  of  the  "  survival 
of  the  fittest,"  for  the  immunity  thus  hardly  gained  has  been 
transmitted  from  generation  to  generation. 

The  importance  of  this  exceptional  vitality  and  resistance 
to  disease  concerns  not  only  the  future  of  the  race  in  this 
country,   but  the  protection  also  of  other  elements  of  our 
population.     The  mortality  rate  of  the  Jew  averages  lower 
than  that  of  any  nationality  emigrating  to  America,  and 
there  is  relatively  little  fear  of  the  spread  of  any  contagion 
from  the  entry  of  the  Jewish  emigrant.    Although  the  Eus-^ 
sian  Jew  comes  from  a  country  where  typhus  and  smallpox  V 
are  endemic,  and  cholera  often  ranges  epidemically,  he  has  < 
never  brought  these  diseases  with  him.     Even  during  1891  j 
and  1894,  when  cholera  was  raging  in  Eussia,  the  numerous 
Jewish  immigrants  did  not  import  it  into  the  United  States.  -'3u~ 
Moreover,  the  ^vitality  of  the  Jew  is  comparatively  .untainted 
by  alcoholism  and  foul  blood  diseases.      >  f^fa^f$$; 

Beyond  any  other  nationality,  too,  the  Jew  in  America 
cares  for  his  own  poor  and  needy.  The  poorest  Jew  has  an 
ingrained  horror  of  pauperism,  and  there  are  few,  indeed, 
who  will  beg  charity  except  at  the  last  extremity  of  need. 
Even  under  the  most  distressing  conditions  in  this  country, 
in  the  grinding  competition  of  the  turmoil  of  great  New 
York,  there  are  practically  no  Jewish  street  beggars,  and 
the  quoted  official  record  of  the  Department  of  Charities  in 
1905  shows  that  there  were  only  twenty-six  pauper  Jews  in 
the  almshouse  on  BlackwelPs  Island,  a  truly  amazing  exhibit  ^ 
in  view  of  a  Jewish  population  exceeding  seven  hundred 
thousand  roundly  in  the  boroughs  of  Brooklyn,  Manhattan,  <^. 
and  the  Bronx.  Let  it  be  borne  in  mind,  too,  that  the  ma 
jority  of  these  paupers  had  some  peculiar  defect  which  barred 
their  admission  to  existing  charitable  Jewish  institutions. 

Who  can  justly  point  to  any  burden  imposed  upon  the  pub 
lic  charities  of  our  country  through  the  coming  of  these  poor 
refugees  to  our  shores?  And  there  is  a  further  fact  of  the 
utmost  significance  and  consequence,  there  are  practically 
no  American-born  Jewish  poor.  Of  the  10,334  families  who 


6  PREFACE 

applied  for  aid  to  the  United  Hebrew  Charities  of  New  York 
in  one  fiscal  year,  only  two  per  cent,  were  born  in  the  United 
States,  and  of  this  small  percentage  the  majority  of  the  heads 
of  families  were  of  the  first  generation.  Jewish  dependents 
who  have  an  ancestry  in  the  United  States  for  more  than 
two  generations  are  virtually  unknown. 

Under  the  worst  prevailing  conditions  the  Jew  in  America 
can  point  with  pride,  furthermore,  to  his  comparative  record 
of  criminality.  The  abused  Russian  Jews  furnish  a  lower 
percentage  of  criminals  than  their  proportion  of  the  popu 
lation.  In  Auburn  prison  there  are  generally  less  than  a 
dozen  Jewish  convicts,  sentenced  for  heinous  crimes,  out 
of  a  total  of  more  than  thirteen  hundred  convict  inmates. 

The  progress  of  the  Russian  Jew  in  this  country  is  sure 
and  constant,  in  spite  of  his  poverty  and  distressful  start. 
The  adult  immigrants,  as  a  rule,  struggle  along  patiently  and 
honestly,  making  gradually  a  more  and  more  decent  home 
and  livelihood  for  themselves,  and  sparing  no  privation  to 
secure  the  education  and  advance  of  their  children.  In  our 
public  schools  the  Jewish  scholars  are,  as  a  rule,  bright,  at 
tentive,  and  studious.  They  excel  in  mathematics,  English, 
and  history.  They  show  special  aptitude  for  studies  appeal 
ing  to  the  imagination,  and  the  enthusiasm  of  even  the  littlest 
children  for  the  free  flag  that  covers  them  is  a  sight  to  stir 
the  heart  of  the  most  heedless  scoffer  at  the  immigrant. 

The  Jewish  facility  of  adaptation  and  the  progress  of 
assimilation  in  this  country  are  incontestable.  The  noted 
congestion  in  the  larger  cities  is  a  drag  weight  upon  prog 
ress  which  should  be  lifted  through  the  promotion  of  better 
distribution. 

It  is  hardly  necessary  to  say  that  I  am  not  personally 
responsible  for  statements  of  fact  or  views  of  policy  expressed 
in  the  present  book.  The  various  authors  are,  each  in  his 
own  department,  experts  whose  statements  and  opinions 
stand  in  need  of  no  support  or  criticism  of  mine. 

EDMUND  JANES  JAMES. 

UNIVERSITY  OF  ILLINOIS 

URBANA — CHAMPAIGN. 


CONTENTS 


PAGE 

PREFACE   .  5 


CHAPTER  I 

INTRODUCTORY 9 

Elements  of  the  Jewish  Population  in  the  United 

States 10 

The  Jew  in  Russia 18 

The  Jew  in  the  United  States 32 

CHAPTER  II 

'  GENERAL  ASPECTS  OF  JEWISH  POPULATION     ...     41 

CHAPTER   III 
PHILANTHROPY 61 

CHAPTER  IV 
^ECONOMIC  AND  INDUSTRIAL  CONDITIONS  ....  101 

CHAPTER  V 

RELIGIOUS  ACTIVITY   ...  .  147 


8  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  VI 
EDUCATIONAL  INFLUENCES 183 

CHAPTER  VII 
AMUSEMENTS  AND  SOCIAL  LIFE 221 

^*> 

CHAPTER  VIII 
THE  JEW  IN  POLITICS 255 

CHAPTER  IX 
HEALTH  AND  SANITATION 281 

CHAPTER  X 
LAW  AND  LITIGATION 335 

CHAPTER  XI 
DISTRIBUTION 365 

CHAPTER  XII 
RURAL  SETTLEMENTS  .  .  375 


I 

INTRODUCTORY 


INTRODUCTORY 

(A)  ELEMENTS  OF  THE  JEWISH  POPULATION  IN 
THE  UNITED  STATES 

Cutting  down  through  two  centuries  and  a  half  of 
American  Jewish  history  lays  bare  three  distinctly  marked 
strata  of  population :  the  Spanish-Portuguese,  the  German, 
and  the  Russian.  This  apparently  presents  a  simple  study 
in  population,  all  the  simpler  as  the  German  stream  of 
immigration  did  not  flow  in  until  the  Sephardic  settle 
ment  had  had  ample  time  and  opportunity  to  work  out 
its  potentialities.  To  a  less  degree,  the  same  exclusive 
dominance  was  granted  the  German  Jew  during  his  shorter 
period,  coextensive,  roughly  speaking,  with  the  nineteenth 
century.  But  on  closer  examination  the  problem  is  not 
so  simple.  Or,  to  put  it  in  other  words,  the  influences 
exerted  by  each  of  the  three  elements  of  the  Jewish  popu 
lation  of  the  United  States  are  subtler,  more  varied,  de 
pendent  upon  a  greater  number  of  constituent  factors,  than 
appears  from  their  bare  enumeration. 

The  Spanish-Portuguese  population  was  not  a  unit. 
Some  of  its  members  came  to  the  American  colonies  direct 
from  Portugal;  others  came  after  residence  in  Holland, 
or  in  Holland  and  England ;  others  again  by  way  of  Brazil 
or  the  Dutch  colonies  in  South  America  and  the  French 
colonies  in  the  West  Indies.  Such  wanderings  betoken 
an  adventurous  spirit  and  a  history  of  romantic  episode, 
which,  in  turn,  indicate  differentiated  experiences,  varied 
opinions,  and  a  broad  outlook  upon  affairs,  with  pliant 
ability  to  grasp  and  utilize  a  situation,  however  new  and 
unexpected.  Paradoxical  as  it  may  seem,  the  very  cos 
mopolitanism  and  variety  of  their  experiences  were  calcu 
lated  to  weld  them  into  a  single  community.  Their  secular 
needs  and  ambitions  were  so  comprehensive  and  diversi 
fied  as  to  give  full  scope  to  their  cultivated  and  tried 
powers.  In  their  Jewish  life  they  could  be  content  to  sink 
differences,  and  so  to  the  outsider  they  had  the  appearance 

10 


ELEMENTS  OF  THE  JEWISH  POPULATION        11 

of  _8^h£mogenepiis_  body.  That  does  not  necessarily  imply 
perfect  Harmony  or  stagnancy  in  the  Sephardic  congrega 
tions.  The  vestry  rooms  were  the  scenes  of  lively  discus 
sions  that  inflicted  heart-burning,  and  caused  recrimina 
tions.  But  whatever  may  have  convulsed  the  small 
community  from  within,  to  the  world,  in  spite  of  its  divers 
origins,  it  presented  a  solid  front. 

The  aspect  changed  completely  with  the  advent  of  the 
German  Jewish  immigrant.  That  a  deep  gulf  yawned  be 
tween  the  Sephardic  and  Ashkenazic  sections  of  the  Jew 
ish  community,  was  but  a  repetition  of  Jewish  history 
elsewhere.  It  was  equally  a  repetition  of  the  course  of 
Jewish  history  elsewhere  that  this  division  should  exist 
in  spite  of  the  fact  that  in  a  number  of  well-known  in 
stances  the  straggling  immigrants  from  Germany,  arriving 
from  the  middle  or  perhaps  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth 
century  to  its  close,  became  the  very  backbone  and  sinew 
of  the  congregation  of  older  establishment,  adopting  its 
ritual  and  customs,  and  intermarrying  with  its  sons  and 
daughters.  But  when  the  stream  of  German  immigra 
tion  became  more  steady,  as  it  did  in  the  early  years  of 
the  nineteenth  century,  and  was  reinforced  by  Polish- 
Dutch  and  Dutch-English  tributaries,  a  new  phase  de 
veloped.  The  small  Sephardic  communities,  in  defense 
of  their  own  individuality,  could  not,  and,  by  reason  of 
their  hidalgo  pride,  would  not,  continue  to  absorb  the  new 
element.  On  the  other  hand,  the  prominent,  useful  indi 
viduals  of  the  German  section  felt  the  propriety  of  devot 
ing  themselves  to  the  needs  of  their  countrymen. 

The  separation  between  the  German  and  the  Sephardic 
community,  then,  displays  no  features  peculiar  to  Ameri 
can  conditions.  fBut  the  splitting  up  of  the  German  com 
munity  from  within  is  of  importance  in  the  development 
of  American  Jewish  life.  \  Coming,  for  the  greater  part, 
direct  from  the  villages  of  South  and  of  North  Germany, 
the  immigrants  arrived  fullv  panoplied  in  their  provincial- 
ism.  The  peculiarities  of  ritual  and  custom  developed 
under  the  influence  of  German  and  Dutch  particularism 
were  dearer  to  their  hearts  than  the  great  underlying  prin- 
ciples.  This  is  a  statement  of  fact,  not  a  criticism,  cer 
tainly  not  derogatory  criticism,  for  the  fulness  of  com 
munal  activity  and  emotion  manifests  itself  through 
Jewish  ceremonial,  and  not  in  speculation,  which  is  the 
prerogative  reserved  for  the  few.  Congregations  were 


12  INTRODUCTORY 

naturally  formed  according  to  propinquity  in  the  Old 
World.  However,  the  principle  of  close  fellowship  be 
tween  "  Landsleute  "  soon,  in  the  face  of  common  trials 
and  common  problems,  lost  whatever  rigidity  it  may  have 
possessed,  and  ceded  first  place  to  a  stronger  reason  operat 
ing  in  the  direction  of  division  of  forces.  The  sprinkling 
of  immigrants  from  the  German  cities,  whose  horizon  was 
wider,  and  whose  less  simple  experience  might  have  tended 
to  level  differences,  as  in  the  case  of  the  Sephardim, 
served  to  introduce  a  new  element  of  separation.  They 
transplanted  to  America  the  German  reform  agitation. 
The  Charleston  Sephardic  congregation  had,  to  be  sure, 
divided  upon  the  question  of  innovations,  but  as  a  move 
ment  reform  was  directed  by  the  German  Jews.  Thus, 
both  the  secular  and  the  religious  past  of  the  German 
immigrants  inclined  them  to  fall  into  autonomous  groups, 
determined  by  their  various  German  origins  geographic 
ally  considered,  and  by  their  attitude  toward  orthodoxy  and 
reform. 

These  provincial  and  disintegrating  features  prevailed 
in  communal  organization  until  after  the  great  German 
immigration  of  1848,  which  imported  charity  problems, 
greater  numbers,  more  cultivated  intelligences,  and  the 
alertness  of  thought  characteristic  of  world-moving  events, 
all  of  them  factors  conducive  to  union  in  the  face  of 
differences  of  faith  and  living. 

The  communal  organization  effected  by  the  German- 
Jewish  immigration  of  1848  and  the  twenty  years  follow 
ing,  was  considerably  promoted  by  smaller  streams  of 
Ashkenazic,  though  not  specifically  German,  origin.  Amer 
ica  began  to  draw  forces  from  the  centres  of  Jewish 
population  farther  and  farther  east.  From  the  first  years 
of  Ashkenazic  immigration,  probably  a  little  before  the 
middle  and  possibly  at  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth 
century,  there  had  been  a  slight,  an  almost  infinitesimal 
infusion  of  Polish  and  Bohemian  elements.  After  Kos- 
suth's  revolution,  with  its  profound  stirring  up  of  the 
Jewish  community,  and,  again,  after  Polish  national  enthu 
siasm  flamed  up  in  the  early  sixties  promising  emancipa 
tion  to  the  Jew,  Hungarian,  Bohemian,  Moravian,  and 
Polish  Jews  came  to  America  in  perceptible  numbers,  as  a 
result  of  the  general  agitation,  forming  a  contingent  which 
the  historian  can  disregard  only  at  his  peril. 

These  smaller  currents  of  AsiLteiazie-4fi&uence  served 


ELEMENTS  OF  THE  JEWISH  POPULATION        13 

a  purpose.  The  Sephardic  tradition  was  permeated  with 
memories  of  mediaeval  Jewish  scholarship  and  literary 
achievement,  and  the  cradle  of  modern  Jewish  science,  of 
the  Wissenschaft  des  Judenthums,  stood  in  Germany,  the 
birthplace  of  the  larger  number  of  Jews  in  the  United 
States.  Yet,  at  the  time  when  Hungarian  and  Polish 
Jews  entered  into  the  complex  of  American-Jewish  life, 
Jewish  learning  not  only  was  in  a  bad  way  in  America, 
but  it  did  not  even  form  part  of  American-Jewish  con 
sciousness  as  a  separate  and  distinct  field  of  Jewish  activ 
ity.  The  making  of  communities,  the  establishment  of 
charitable  "societies,  the  adjustment  of  fresh  generations 
of  immigrants  to  new  economic  conditions,  occupied  the 
whole  time  of  the  leaders  of  the  people.  Such  feeble  be 
ginnings  of  educational  activity  as  were  called  into  being 
by  heroic,  advanced  effort  bore  no  faint  resemblance  to 
Jewish  learning.  The  immigrant  from  eastern  Europe, 
if  not  himself  a  scholar,  at  least  had  an  appreciation 
of  Jewish  scholarship.  His  close  communal  organization 
at  home  had  borne  in  upon  his  mind  a  vivid  realization  of 
how  vitally  Jewish  science  is  connected  with  Jewish  life. 
His  religious  conformity  was  based  upon  a  clearer  valua 
tion  of  reasons  and  origins  than  the  rigid  orthodoxy  or 
the  reform  aspirations  of  the  German  Jews. 

This  appreciation  of  Jewish  learning  on  the  part  of 
Austro-Hungarian  and  Polish  immigrants,  and  all  it  im 
plies  with  regard  to  Jewish  habits  of  living,  did,  indeed, 
make  no  perceptible  change  in  conditions,  the  less  so  as 
the  German  Jews  comprehensively  pronounced  the  doom 
of  scorn  upon  them  as  "  Hinter  Berliner,"  and  so  made 
abortive  whatever  power  they  had  to  exercise  influence. 
Yet  the  characteristic  distinguishing  them  from  the  earlier 
immigrants  did  not  fail  of  leaving  its  impress.  While 
they  were  entering  congregations  as  a  leaven,  and  were 
drawing  rabbis  and  teachers  from  their  own  countries  to 
America,  the  great  Russian  catastrophe  was  approaching. 
When  the  blow  fell,  the  only  preparation  the  bulk  of  the 
Jewish  population  in  the  United  States  had  had  for  the 
task  of  assimilating  a  large  and  almost  alien  element  was 
derived  from  the  attitude  toward  Jewish  questions  taken 
by  its  Hungarian  and  Polish  members.  They  were  the 
missing  link  that  in  time  was  to  bring  to  the  consciousness 
of  the  German  Jews  the  kinship  existing  between  them 
selves  and  the  shoals  of  immigrants  from  the  Pale.  At 


14  INTRODUCTORY 

the  time  of  the  influx,  they  were  aware  neither  of  the 
closeness  of  the  tie,  nor  of  the  fact  that  they  had  long 
had  among  them  living  examples  of  the  gradations  exist 
ing  in  Ashkenazic  Judaism.  Much  as  the  German  Jews 
from  Germany  differed  among  themselves  in  minor  cus 
toms  and  practices,  the  temper  of  their  minds  with  regard 
to  Judaism  was  practically  uniform,  a  statement  that  em 
braces  the  orthodox  as  well  as  the  reform  wing.  Here 
they  were  confronted  suddenly,  as  they  first  thought,  by  an 
entirely  new  development  of  Jewish  thought,  and  their 
spontaneous  impulse  was  to  repudiate  it.  As  the  stream 
of  Russian  immigration  continued  unabated,  facts  of 
earlier  and  of  later  occurrence  co-ordinated  themselves, 
and  the  scorn  once  poured  out  upon  the  "  Polack,"  or, 
generically,  the  "  Hinter  Berliner,"  since  it  was  the  only 
channel  through  which  knowledge  flowed,  brought  about 
the  first  adjustment  to  the  vast  problem.  The  German 
Jews  gradually  realized  that  the  Hungarians  and  Poles 
had  been  but  the  vanguard  of  the  largest  contingent  in 
the  Jewish  army.  It  was  a  sobering  realization,  and  it 
summoned  from  the  recesses  of  the  communal  mind  all 
lessons  unconsciously  learnt  from  a  distinct  and  peculiar 
element,  once  present  in  small  proportions,  and  now  aug 
mented  to  a  host  larger  than  the  German-Jewish  detach 
ment  itself  —  and  perhaps  more  resourceful,  materially 
and  spiritually. 

The  Eussian  Jewish  element  defies  analysis.  With  its 
Lithuanian,  Volhynian,  Bessarabian,  and  other  constituents, 
and  its  Galician,  Polish,  and  Roumanian  tributary  streams, 
it  is  more  complex  than  either  of  the  other  two.  Besides, 
we  are  still  caught  in  the  eddies  and  currents  of  the  Rus 
sian  migration,  and  are  being  thrown  hither  and  thither 
by  it.  Hazardous  as  it  is  to  make  generalizations  about 
the  century  just  closed,  it  is  after  all  not  illegitimate. 
But  to  say  what  the  Russian  Jew  is  and  can  be  in  America 
is  to  prophesy  the  course  of  the  twentieth  century.  It 
may  not  be  too  presumptuous,  however,  to  point  out  one 
of  the  ways  in  which  the  Russian  population  promises  to 
affect  the  organization  of  Judaism  in  America. 

If  the  Spanish-Portuguese  population  contained  various 
elements,  and  if  the  German  population  was  welded  to 
gether  only  by  the  force  of  circumstances,  the  Russian 
population  carries  the  tendency  toward  grouping  and 
segregation  to  the  length  of  a  fault.  The  Anshe  Kowno 


ELEMENTS  OF  THE  JEWISH  POPULATION         15 

and  the  Anshe  Jitomir  and  the  "  Men  of  every  Russia^  ' 
Hamlet  "  lead  separate  existences  in  the  effort  to  per 
petuate  the  home  traditions.  Subjectively,  from  the  point 
of  view  of  the  Russian  Jew  himself,  this  is  a  mistake,  how 
ever  pardonable  in  the  circumstances,  and  a  fault,  however 
amiable  and  attractive  to  the  folklore  student  and  the  story 
writer.  Objectively,  it  may  turn  out  to  be  a  valuable 
factor  in  the  creation  of  the  Jewish  type  in  America.  The 
common  welfare  will  be  furthered  beyond  expression  by 
transplanting  to  the  new  soil  every  possible  variation  of 
the  Jewish  ideal,  as  it  has  been  modified  in  all  the  coun 
tries  of  the  Jewish  dispersion.  Only  by  retaining  its 
identity  for  a  little  while  after  its  arrival  in  America, 
only  by  permitting  its  peculiar,  unabridged  heritage  of 
intellect  and  feeling  to  be  modified  by  the  "  sweetness  and 
light  "  issuing  from  free  American  political  and  social 
institutions,  can  each  group  do  this  service  to  the  Jewish 
community  of  the  future,  the  Jewish  community  that  shall  \y 
be  all  Jewish  —  not  Sephardic,  not  German,  not  Russian, 
not  even  American,  but  simply  and  solely  Jewish. 

For  instance,  the  Chassidistic  movement  is  now  repre 
sented  in  this  country  by  numerous  congregations  bearing 
chiefly  the  title  Anshe  Sfard.  Far  removed  as  American 
Jewry  of  the  nineteenth  century  was  from  sympathy  with, 
or  intellectual  appreciation  of  what  the  Anshe  Sfard  stand 
for,  there  is  no  telling  what  a  rejuvenating  and  spiritual 
izing  influence  their  presence  may  exert  when  their  con 
stituents  or  the  children  of  their  constituents  enter  into 
American  life,  provided  they  enter  it,  not  with  a  careless 
throwing  aside  of  their  heirloom,  but  with  full  conscious 
ness  of  the  strength  of  the  strands  they  are  weaving  into 
its  woof.  They  may  turn  out  to  be  the  clasp  uniting  the 
first  and  the  last  link  in  the  chain  of  elements  composing 
Judaism  in  America.  Isaac  Luria,  a  mystic  of  German 
descent,  in  the  sixteenth  century  modifies  the  Sephardic 
ritual  to  suit  his  Kabbalistic  fancy,  and  his  prayer  book, 
in  turn,  satisfies  the  devout  yearnings  of  the  followers  of 
the  Baal  Shem,  some  of  whose  descendants,  the  very  Anshe 
Sfard  just  mentioned,  are  now  engaged  in  the  desperate 
struggle  for  existence  in  America.  What  a  pregnant  bit 
of  history!  When  once  it  is  understood,  it  will  make  for 
solidarity,  binding  together  the  Spanish-Portuguese  com 
munity  of  two  hundred  and  fifty  years'  standing  with  the 
latest  and  humblest  comer ! 


16  INTBODUCTORY 

So  each  group,  if  its  characteristics  are  studied  in  the 
light  of  history,  and  when  once  these  characteristics  are 
toned  down  by  contact  with  other  conceptions  of  life  and 
Judaism,  will  be  a  source  of  strength  and  completer  union. 
The  particularism  of  the  German  Jew  disappeared  only 
in  the  presence  of  extra-congregational  needs  and  forces; 
the  individualism  of  the  Russian  Jew  will  be  converted 
into  a  communal  power  when  he  realizes  his  unifying 
religious  mission  in  Jewish  America. 

At  present,  by  reason  of  their  tendency  to  break  up  into 
small  groups,  the  Russian  Jews  are  looked  upon  by  their 
patrons  and  by  their  own  leaders  as  the  most  unorganizable 
material  among  the  Jews,  who  at  best  are  not  distinguished 
for  the  quality  of  being  organizable.  To  the  keener  ob 
server  it  would  appear  that  the  disintegration  in  Russian- 
Jewish  ranks,  the  almost  foolish  segregation  recklessly  in 
dulged  in,  is  a  passing  feature  of  a  period  of  upheaval. 
It  is  the  manifestation  of  reserve  energy  that  cannot  yet 
find  an  outlet  in  the  secular  life,  a  reaction  from  workaday 
struggles  and  anxieties,  with  a  just  admixture  of  desire 
to  show  self-reliance  and  initiative.  The  time  is  not  dis-  - 
tant  when  the  Russian  Jew  will  have  solved  the  elementary 
problems  of  American  existence,  and  will  be  prepared  to 
take  up  the  more  soul-satisfying  pursuits  open  to  the 
politically  and  intellectually  acclimatized  citizen.  His 
spiritual  energies  will  flow  in  quieter  channels  without 
abating  a  jot  of  their  force  and  fervor.  The  differences 
between  group  and  group  will  have  been  worn  off  by 
attrition,  and  the  common  ideal  will  have  been  disengaged 
as  the  important  rallying-point. 

In  this  direction  Zionism  is  doing  admirable  work  for 
the  Russian  Jew  in  America.  It  is  teaching  him  the  uses 
of  co-operation,  and  of  that  degree  of  organization  in 
Jewish  matters  which  comports  with  freedom  of  spiritual 
development.  Under  its  influence,  the  Russian  Jews  will 
give  up  their  separate,  somewhat  distrustful  existence,  and 
the  separate  institutions,  doubtless  not  without  educative 
value  in  this  transition  period,  which  they  are  creating  by 
the  score  in  all  the  larger  cities.  They  will  soon  reach  the 
point  at  which  they  will  turn  for  guidance  to  the  history 
of  the  Germans  and  of  their  Sephardic  predecessors. 
Eschewing  the  foolish  pride  of  both,  they  will  emulate  the 
dignity  and  self-respect  of  the  latter,  and  the  sobriety 
and  the  steadiness  of  purpose  of  the  former.  They  will 


ELEMENTS  OF  THE  JEWISH  POPULATION        17 

use  the  institutions  created  by  ttieni  as  the  stocK  upon 
which  to  engraft  their  intenser  fervor,  their  broader  Jew 
ish  scholarship,  a  more  enlightened  conception  of  Jewish 
ideals,  and  a  more  inclusive  interest  in  Jewish  world 
(Questions. 

The  result  will  be  an  United  Israel  in  America,  respon 
sive  as  a  body  to  the  calls  and  aspirations  of  Israel  the 
world  over,  showing  neither  rift  nor  seam  where  the 
disparate  elements  have  been  forged  together,  and  strong 
through  the  presence  of  every  modification  of  Jewish  char 
acter,  thought,  conviction,  and  ideal. 


(B)  THE  JEW  IN  RUSSIA1 

There  are  Hebraists  who  believe  that  when  the  poet  of 
the  captivity  made  Israel  exclaim,  "  Wo  is  me  that  I 
sojourn  in  Meshech,"  he  had  in  mind  the  ancestors  of  the 
present  Russian  nation  and  a  country  which  now  forms 
part  of  Russian  territory.  This  would  bring  the  date 
when  Israelite  and  Muscovite  first  came  in  contact  back 
to  Biblical  times.  It  is,  at  any  rate,  not  later  than  the 
eighth  or  ninth  century.  In  the  memorable  letter  written 
in  the  tenth  century  by  Joseph,  the  Jewish  king  of  the 
Khozars,  to  Chasdai  ibn  Shaprut,  the  Jewish  diplomatist 
of  Abdul-Rahman  of  Cordova,  the  Russians  are  first  men 
tioned  in  connection  with  Jewish  history,  and  moreover, 
as  adversaries,  being  enumerated  among  the  nations  with 
whom  he  was  constantly  at  war.  The  Russians  ultimately 
overthrew  the  Khozar  kingdom,  and  large  numbers  of 
Khozars  and  original  Jews  who  were  attracted  to  the 
Jewish  state  were  dispersed  in  the  Russian  dominions. 
Jews  were  also  found  in  the  many  places  which  one  by  one 
fell  into  Russia's  hands  in  the  course  of  its  expansion. 
The  aversion  of  the  Russians  to  allowing  Jews  to  dwell 
among  them  did  not  manifest  itself  apparently  at  this 
early  period. 

There  are  records  of  Jewish  settlements  in  Kieff  and 
other  old  towns  and  of  independent  communities  in  the 
twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries.  There  were  also  im 
portant  Jewish  communities  in  Little  Russia  and  White 
Russia  during  the  long  periods  when  these  provinces 
formed  part  of  the  Lithuanian  or  Polish  dominions. 
Many  Jews  also  came  to  Russia  in  the  wake  of  the  Tatar 
invasion  in  the  thirteenth  century,  and  occupied  impor 
tant  positions,  mostly  as  farmers  of  the  revenue,  a  cir 
cumstance  which  contributed  much  to  increase  the  senti 
ment  against  Jews  among  the  Russians.  But  Russia 
proper,  that  is,  modern,  autocratic,  Greek  Catholic  Russia, 
practically  never  admitted  Jews  within  its  boundaries. 

1  This  article  was  written  prior  to  the  Kishinev  riot  of  1903. 

18 


THE  JEW  IN  EUSSIA  19 

Ivan  IV.,  "  The  Terrible,"  flatly  refused  the  request  of 
Sigismund  August,  King  of  Poland,  to  allow  Lithuanian 
Jews  to  trade  in  Russia.  Alexis  Michailovitch,  the  second 
of  the  Romanoffs,  expelled  the  Jews  from  Mohilew  when 
it  fell  into  his  hands.  ^  J/t  was,  therefore,  after  the  acquisi 
tion  of  Lithuania  and  other  parts  of  dismembered  Poland 
that  Russia  found  itself  ruling  over  vast  numbers  of  Jews 
whom  it  could  not  easily  expel,  and  it  is  only  since  that 
time  that  the  history  of  the  Jews  in  Russia  really  com 
mences. 

The  Polish  and  Lithuanian  Jews  whom  we  now  call  by 
the  collective  name  of  Jews  of  Russia  are  mostly  of  Ger 
man  extraction.  Little  is  known  of  the  Jews  in  Poland 
before  the  first  Crusade  at  the  end  of  the  eleventh  century. 
There  is  every  reason  to  believe,  however,  that  there  were 
Jewish  settlements  in  Poland  before  that  period  and  that 
its  members,  like  the  Jews  of  early  Russia,  spoke  the  Slavic 
language  of  their  Gentile  neighbors.  But  the  steady  in 
flux  of  Jews  from  Germany  after  each  of  the  long  series 
of  persecutions  which  began  in  that  country  with  the 
first  Crusade  brought  about  a  preponderance  of  the  Ger 
man  element  among  the  Jews  of  Poland,  even  to  the 
extent  of  forcing  the  minority  to  adopt  the  language  of 
the  new  arrivals.  This  is  not  the  only  instance  of  a  for 
eign  tongue  being  forced  by  a  great  mass  of  Jewish  immi 
grants  on  small,  indigenous  Jewish  communities.  There 
are  Jews  in  the  Barbary  states  in  northern  Africa  whose 
forefathers  came  there  with  their  fierce  countrymen  at 
the  time  of  the  Mohammedan  invasion,  direct  from  the 
plains  and  deserts  of  Arabia.  But  the  numbers  of  Span 
ish  Jews  who  followed  during  the  great  persecutions  of 
the  fourteenth  century,  and  after  their  expulsion  at  the 
end  of  the  fifteenth  century,  so  overwhelmed  them  in  num 
bers  and  intelligence  that  we  now  find  descendants  of 
Arabian  tribesmen  who  never  set  foot  on  the  Pyrenean 
peninsula  using  as  their  mother  tongue  the  corrupt  Span 
ish  dialect  known  as  Ladino.  So,  too,  we  find  in  Russia, 
Jews  descended  from  Khozars  or  from  Babylonian  Jews 
who  came  to  their  present  abode  by  wayxof  Persia  and  the 
Caucasus,  from  Turkestan  or  from  Kurdistan,  now  speak 
ing  the  imported  mixed  German  dialect  which  for  want 
of  a  better  name  we  call  Yiddish.  The  remnants  of  the 
Russian-speaking  and  Polish-speaking  Jewish  communities 
were  rooted  out  during  the  terrible  massacres  at  the  time 


20  INTRODUCTORY 

of  the  rising  of  the  Haidomaki,  or  Cossacks,  under  Bogdan 
Chmielnicki  in  1648-49,  when  entire  communities  were 
exterminated  and  nearly  a  quarter  million  Jews  lost  their 
lives.  Allowing  for  local  variations  in  the  characteristics 
and  the  dialects  of  different  provinces  and  for  foreign 
influences  in  the  border  governments,  the  Yiddish-speak 
ing,  semi-Germanic,  Polish,  and  Lithuanian  Jews  that 
came  under  Russian  rule  at  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  cen 
tury  formed  an  almost  homogeneous  entity. 

This  mass  was  a  secluded  and  degraded  middle  class 
little  in  touch  with  the  current  of  Polish  national  feeling; 
for  the  persecutions  and  restrictive  measures  of  the  last 
two  centuries  of  Polish  misrule  reduced  what  was  the 
happiest  Jewry  in  Europe  during  the  Middle  Ages  to  the 
lowest  depths  of  servility  and  stupor.  Catharine  II.  was 
too  busy  and  Paul  I.  too  mad  to  take  important  steps  to 
solve  the  Jewish  problem,  which  now  became  one  of  the 
great  problems  of  the  empire.  Alexander  I.  was  the  first 
who  seriously  attempted  to  do  something  toward  that  end. 
He  opened  to  the  Jews  what  little  educational  facilities 
Russia  had  at  that  time,  and  he  is  reported  to  have  said 
that  he  would  be  well  satisfied,  indeed,  if  all  that  was 
spent  under  him  for  Jewish  education  should  contribute 
to  the  production  of  one  man  like  Mendelssohn.  The  good 
monarch  did  not  stop  to  consider  that  a  nation  must  first 
be  able  to  produce  a  Herder,  a  Lessing,  a  Kant,  or  a 
Lavater  before  a  Mendelssohn  could  rise  in  its  midst. 
Mendelssohn's  greatness  lay  not  in  his  philosophy.  That 
part  of  Poland  over  which  Alexander  I.  ruled,  produced, 
in  the  eighteenth  century,  a  much  profounder  metaphysi 
cian  than  the  sage  of  Dessau,  namely,  Salomon  Maimon. 
But  Mendelssohn,  the  polite  scholar  and  man  of  the  world, 
living  among  a  nation  that  had  already  attained  a  high 
degree  of  culture  and  refinement,  had  only  to  teach  his 
fellow  Jews  by  example  to  adjust  themselves  to  the  sur 
rounding  circumstances,  to  learn  the  language  and  the 
manners  of  their  Christian  neighbors,  so  as  to  be  fit  for 
emancipation.  True,  it  would  greatly  benefit  the  Jews 
of  Russia  if  they  adopted  the  Russian  language  as  their 
mother  tongue.  But  here  the  analogy  ends.  Bad  as  the 
condition  of  the  Jews  was  then  and  is  now  —  and  were  it 
even  much  worse, —  it  would  still  be  a  retrogressive  step 
for  them  to  pattern  themselves  after  the  Russians,  that  is, 
to  place  themselves  on  their  low  material  or  mental  level. 


THE  JEW  IN  EUSSIA  21 

This  inferiority  of  the  vast  majority  of  the  Russian 
people  makes  it  difficult  for  outsiders  to  comprehend  and 
for  the  government  to  solve  the  vexatious  Jewish  problem. 
A  foreigner  who  takes  a  flying  trip  to  Russia,  stops  at 
first-class  hotels,  converses  in  French  with  university-bred 
men,  and  beholds,  figuratively  speaking,  through  the  win 
dow  of  his  car  or  equipage,  the  thin  veneer  of  civilization 
which  can  be  imported  for  money,  usually  reaches  the 
conclusion  that  Russia  occupies  as  high  a  position  in  the 
scale  of  civilization  as  the  United  States,  for  example; 
perhaps  a  higher  one.  But  the  truth  is  that  the  Russians! 
—  that  is  eighty-five  or  ninety  per  cent,  of  them  —  are  so 
much  below  everything  we  know  here  that  we  would  have 
to  go  to  the  illiterate  Southern  negro  for  a  familiar  ex 
ample  of  their  mental  capacity.  The  Russian  may  be !>  V 
styled  the  unhappy  medium  between  the  Asiatic  and  w 
the  European,  possessing  the  low  cunning  of  the  former 
without  his  stoicism  and  the  brutal  aggressiveness  of  the 
latter  without  his  fairness  '  or  activity.  Left  to  himself, 
the  Russian  is  a  most  helpless  human  being  and  the  willing 
slave  of  every  one  who  wants  to  be  his  master.  The  per 
centage  of  Jews,  Germans,  Poles,  and  other  non-Russians 
among  the  artists,  scholars,  merchants,  and  manufacturers, 
and  even  among  the  government  employees  of  Russia,  is  so 
large,  in  spite  of  all  the  favors  shown  to  Russians,  and 
all  the  disadvantages  under  which  the  non-Russians  have 
to  labor,  as  almost  to  justify  Pobiedonostseff  's  statement 
that  the  Jews  must  be  discriminated  against  because  the 
Russians  are  not  able  to  compete  with  them  on  equal  terms. 
This  is  the  real  cause  of  the  persecutions  and  of  the  special 
laws,  and  it  makes  improvement  of  the  Jews  largely  con 
tingent  on  the  improvement  of  the  condition  of  the  Rus 
sians. 

Naturally,   the   government   of   Russia  never   admitted 
that  it  was  the  Russian  and  not  the  Jew  who  must  be  \ 
lifted  up  in  order  to  bring  about  a  solution  of  the  problem.  / 
Its  policy  toward  the  Jews  was,  from  the  beginning,  mostly  I 
in  the  direction  of  forcing  him  out  of  his  natural  position 
as  the  middleman,  as  the  artisan-trader,  and  of  turning 
him,  often  by  the  most  cruel  and  violent  means,  into  the  \ 
ranks  of  the   agricultural   laborer,   the   journeyman,   and  \ 
the  factory  hand,  positions  for  which  he  has  no  special 
aptitude.     The  well-meaning,  but  rather  feeble,  Alexander 
I,  did  not  accomplish  much,  and  his  successor,  the  iron- 


22  2NTEODUCTOET 

willed  and  energetic  Nicholas  I.,  evinced  such  a  strong 
desire  to  convert  the  Jews  of  his  dominion  to  the  Greek 
Catholic  religion  that  they  looked  with  suspicion  even  on 
the  efforts  he  earnestly  made  in  other  directions  to  im 
prove  their  condition.  His  enterprises  in  behalf  of  Jewish 
education,  which  were  made  through  his  minister  of  edu 
cation,  the  illustrious  Count  Ouvaroff,  are  especially  in 
teresting  because  they  made  a  lasting  impression  on  the 
development  of  Russo-Jewish  intelligence,  and  are  a  fair 
sample  of  the  method  by  which  the  Russian  government 
deals  with  the  Jews. 

It  was  evident  that  the  Jews  were  too  much  absorbed  in 
the  study  of  the  Talmud  and  paid  too  little  attention  to 
secular  education.  But  the  knowledge  of  the  Talmud  in 
those  days  and,  to  some  extent,  even  now,  brought  rich 
rewards  in  communal  distinction  and  was  considered  the 
sine  qua  non  of  superiority.  The  Jewish  opponents  of  the 
exclusive  study  of  the  Talmud  were  the  small  and  unin- 
fluential  circles  of  maskilim,  the  devotees  of  the  Men- 
delssohnian  enlightenment  which  penetrated  into  Russia 
through  the  efforts  of  Mendelssohn's  numerous  Polish  and 
Lithuanian  pupils  late  in  the  eighteenth  and  early  in  the 
nineteenth  century.  These  maskilim,  "  the  friends  of 
light, ' '  who  believed  in  the  regeneration  of  Israel  by  means 
of  the  knowledge  of  Hebrew  and  German,  were  made 
known  to  Ouvaroff  by  the  late  Dr.  Lilienthal,  who  discov 
ered  them  while  traveling  as  the  agent  of  the  Russian 
government  for  the  purpose  of  establishing  elementary 
schools  in  the  Jewish  communities.  Ouvaroff  sided  with 
the  maskilim  and  was  so  much  influenced  by  their  opinions 
of  what  Russian  Jews  ought  to  study  that  he  told  Sir 
Moses  Montefiore,  when  the  latter  visited  St.  Petersburg 
in  1846,  of  his  efforts  "  to  force  the  Jews  to  study  their 
own  language."  The  rabbinical  schools  or  seminaries 
which  were  founded  in  Wilna  and  Zhitomir  in  1848  were 
practically  managed  by  the  maskilim,  and  according  to 
their  ideas.  But  the  new  rabbis  who  were  to  influence 
the  Jews  to  accept  modern  ideas  and  to  become  more  Rus 
sianized  lacked  the  chief  requisite  for  the  rabbinical  office 
in  Russia,  the  knowledge  of  the  Talmud.  The  conserva 
tive  masses  never  took  kindly  to  these  seminaries.  The 
graduates,  who  had  a  good  secular  but  a  poor  Jewish  edu 
cation,  usually  went  to  the  universities  and  took  up  other 
professions;  only  a  small  portion  became  rabbis,  and  none 


THE  JEW  IN  RUSSIA  23 

obtained  prominence  as  Talmudists.  The  seminaries  con 
tinued  for  about  a  quarter  century,  when  they  were  closed 
because  they  had  failed  to  accomplish  what  was  expected 
of  them.  An  earlier  attempt  in  Poland  failed  even  more 
completely.  The  rabbinical  school  of  Warsaw,  which 
flourished  under  the  auspices  of  the  maskilim,  from  1825 
to  1862,  had  the  unique  distinction  that  not  one  of  its 
pupils  ever  became  a  rabbi  —  unless  the  * '  Rev. ' '  Christian 
David  Ginsburg  be  considered  one. 

But  the  maskilim  were  not  the  only  ones  instrumental 
in  the  failure^  of  the  rabbinical  schools  to  bring  about 
better  results.  The  government,  by  its  efforts  to  convert 
the  Jews  to  Christianity,  by  decreeing  measures  of  perse 
cution,  like  the  expulsion  of  Jews  from  places  within  fifty 
versts  of  the  frontier,  at  the  time  when  privileges  were 
granted  to  educated  Jews,  caused  the  religious  masses  to 
look  with  suspicion  on  the  seminaries  as  on  a  veiled  agency 
for  converting  them.  The  extortionate  "  candle  tax," 
which  supported  the  Jewish  schools,  was  also  very  ob 
noxious,  and  helped  to  make  the  seminaries  hated  and 
despised.  Still,  had  the  maskilim  of  the  period  paid  more 
deference  to  the  prejudices  of  the  conservative  element, 
and  had  they  recognized  the  necessity  for  a  successful 
spiritual  leader  among  the  Jews  of  Russia  to  be  a  thorough 
Talmudist,  the  seminaries  would  most  probably  in  time 
have  survived  the  early  prejudices  against  them,  and  the 
perplexing  system  of  two  rabbis  for  each  community,  one 
11  government  rabbi,"  a  secular  scholar  who  usually  knows 
little  or  nothing  about  Judaism,  and  the  other  a  communal 
rabbi,  who  is  a  Talmudist  and  knows  little  of  worldly 
affairs,  could  have  been  dispensed  with.  The  rabbinical 
question  is  now  one  of  the  most  vexing  that  Russian  Jewry 
has  to  contend  with,  and  the  closing  by  the  government 
of  the  celebrated  Yeshibah  (Academy)  of  Volosin,  in  1892, 
after  all  its  efforts  to  introduce  in  it  the  study  of  the  Rus 
sian  language  had  failed,  augmented,  rather  than  dimin 
ished,  the  difficulty.  .  A  sort  of  Chautauquan  system  of 
educating  rabbis  introduced  by  the  late  Rabbi  Isaac 
Elchanan  of  Kovno,  under  which  the  so-called  "  Perushim 
of  Kovno  "  studied  —  each  by  himself  —  has  so  far  not 
proven  very  successful. 

However,  it  was  only  from  the  religious  point  of  view 
that  the  rabbinical  seminaries  failed  to  achieve  their  pur 
pose.  It  cannot  be  denied  that  they  did  much  good  in  a 


24  INTRODUCTORY 

general  way.  The  first  fifteen  years  of  the  reign  of  Alex 
ander  II.  (1855-1870),  the  short  so-called  "  Golden  Age  " 
of  the  Jews  of  Russia,  offered  many  opportunities  for  the 
Jew  with  a  Russian  education,  and  it  is  no  wonder  that 
many  of  the  abler  pupils  chose  to  enter  careers  which 
were  far  more  promising  than  the  rabbinate.  The  preju 
dice  against  secular  education  and  the  suspicion  that  it 
leads  and  is  intended  to  lead  to  apostasy  was  still  strong, 
when  suddenly  under  the  new  liberal  regulations,  brilliant 
prospects  for  every  Jew  of  ability  were  opened.  When 
the  professions  and  civil  service  positions  were  made  acces 
sible  to  Jews  the  number  of  those  who  had  the  necessary 
Russian  education  to  be  able  to  avail  themselves  of  the 
newly  offered  opportunities  was  comparatively  small. 
Then  came  what  may  be  termed  a  "  rush  "  for  education, 
but  before  the  new  generation  had  finished  its  course  of 
studies  the  reaction  set  in  and  the  opportunities  were 
much  diminished.  However,  the  impetus  then  given  is 
indicated  by  the  desire  for  education  which  is  one  of  the 
chief  characteristics  of  the  better  class  of  Russian  Jews. 
Parents  who  were  at  first  opposed  to  the  desires  of  their 
sons  to  become  educated  saw  their  folly  and  were  com 
pelled  to  admit  that  their  conservatism  deprived  their  chil 
dren  of  the  attainment  of  the  affluence  and  distinction 
enjoyed  by  the  children  of  the  more  lenient  or  the  more 
progressive. 

To  obtain  education  and  to  enjoy  the  fruits  thereof  now 
meant  a  hard  struggle,  for  only  a  very  small  number  of 
Jews  were  admitted  to  the  universities,  and  few  positions 
were  open  for  Jewish  graduates.  Fathers  and  mothers 
now  seconded  their  children's  desire  for  education,  which 
was  the  more  ardent  the  more  difficult  it  became  to  obtain 
it.  At  present,  the  poorer  classes  have  almost  abandoned 
all  hope  of  having  their  children  educated,  being  unable 
to  incur  the  expense  necessary  to  secure  one  of  the  few 
seats  reserved  for  Jews  at  the  higher  institutions  of  learn 
ing.  It  must  be  remembered  that  every  public  favor 
shown  or  honor  conferred  on  a  Jew  in  Russia  reflects  credit 
on  the  entire  Jewish  community.  In  Russia,  as  in  all 
countries  where  the  masses  are  steeped  in  ignorance,  the 
educated  classes  form  a  sort  of  nobility  and  are  considered 
much  superior  to  the  common  people.  The  Jews,  there 
fore,  take  pride  in  every  one  of  their  co-religionists  who 
is  added  to  the  distinguished  class,  and  this  gives  a  pa- 


THE  JEW  IN  EUSSIA  25 

trioiic  tinge  to  the  anxiety  to  become  educated  and  be 
"  an  honor  to  Judaism."  This  view  of  education  some 
times  makes  a  ludicrous  impression  when  brought  over  to 
this  country.  We  often  meet  here  enthusiastic  young  Rus 
sian  Jews  who  fail  to  comprehend  the  vast  difference  be-  ; 
tween  the  circumstances  of  both  countries,  and  continue 
to  act  and  to  speak  as  if  they  did  a  great  favor  to  the 
Jewish  community  by  taking  up  the  study  of  law  or  of 
medicine. 

The  above  incidents  in  the  history  of  the  development 
of  knowledge  among  the  Jews  of  Russia  may  serve  to  show 
the  haphazard  and  impractical  way  in  which  many  proj 
ects  of  reform  are  undertaken  in  that  country  and  why 
they  so  often  miscarry.  It  is  impossible  to  attempt  within 
the  short  space  allotted  to  this  chapter  to  give  even  the 
faintest  outline  or  the  briefest  resume  of  the  immense 
mass  of  cruel,  foolish,  and  often  contradictory  laws  and 
regulations  enacted  by  the  Russian  government  in  relation 
to  the  Jews.  Were  it  even  possible  to  enumerate  them, 
but  an  incorrect  impression  of  the  status  of  the  Jews  would 
remain,  because  every  official  interprets  them  in  his  own 
way  or  chooses  to  enforce  what  at  the  moment  suits  his 
object  or  his  fancy.  One  may  act  in  one  way,  while  his 
colleague  in  a  neighboring  city  may  for  the  same  reason 
decide  in  a  diametrically  opposite  manner.  The  only 
tendency  which  may  be  noticed  in  the  anti-Jewish  laws 
is  the  one  mentioned  above,  to  force  Jews  out  of  the  middle 
class.  The  law  promulgated  by  Alexander  II.  in  1865 
permitting  Jewish  artisans  to  reside  outside  of  the  Pale 
of  Settlement  in  all  parts  of  the  empire  was  probably  the 
most  beneficient  measure  ever  enacted  by  Russia  in  favor 
of  the  Jews.  But  it  was  rendered  almost  nugatory  by  the 
later  interpretation  that  the  handicraftsman  residing  out 
side  the  Pale  is  prohibited  from  "  dealing  "  in  his  own 
products,  and  may  only  work  to  order  or  for  other  masters. 
The  Jew  was  thus  deprived  of  the  possibility  of  becoming 
the  artisan-trader  and  small  merchant-manufacturer  of 
Russia,  and  occupying  a  position  for  which  he  is  well 
adapted.  The  last  blow  at  the  Jewish  middlemen  was 
delivered  when  the  government  created  the  whiskey  mo 
nopoly,  taking  it  into  its  own  hands  and  thus  depriving 
about  thirty  thousand  Jewish,  and  several  times  as  many 
non-Jewish,  families  of  their  means  of  livelihood.  It  is 
interesting  to  note  that  even  the  non-Jewish  saloon  keepers 


26  INTRODUCTOEY 

in  Russia  were  but  seldom  Russians.  The  number  of 
saloons  in  the  Russian  empire  is  much  larger  than  the 
number  of  Russians  who  could  keep  sober  if  they  happened 
to  be  the  sole  proprietors  of  bottles  and  barrels  of  vodka. 
In  the  localities  where  Jews  are  not  permitted  to  engage 
in  mercantile  pursuits,  the  liquor  business  was  usually  in 
the  hands  of  Germans,  Letts,  and  other  non-Russians. 
The  liquor  monopoly  has  not  proven  a  success  so  far,  but 
as  very  few  Russians  were  ruined  by  it  the  government 
may  well  think  the  experiment  worth  trying. 

The  economic  condition  of  the  Jewish  masses  is  probably 
worst  in  Lithuania.  The  Jews  of  this  province,  who  are 
intellectually  superior  to  those  in  other  parts  of  Russia, 
have  the  most  difficult  struggle  for  existence.  The  land 
in  Lithuania  is  poor,  and  the  peasants  are  sunk  in  the 
lowest  depths  of  ignorance  and  poverty.  With  the  excep 
tion  of  those  in  Byalistock  and  a  few  other  unimportant 
manufacturing  centres,  the  province  contains  no  industries 
worth  speaking  of.  The  "  Litvaks,"  or  Lithuanian  Jews, 
are  therefore  thrown  back  on  their  ingenuity  and  Jewish 
learning  for  a  living.  They  were  the  first  immigrants 
who  came  to  inner  Russia,  to  Germany,  to  England,  and 
to  the  United  States.  They  supply  the  melammedim 
(teachers),  the  cantors,  the  schochetim  (authorized  slaugh 
terers),  and  all  other  sorts  of  "  reverends  "  for  the  Jews 
in  the  various  countries.  Probably  two-thirds  of  the  Rus 
sian  Jews  outside  of  Russia  or  in  Russia  outside  of  the 
Pale  are  from  Lithuania.  The  most  successful  Jews  in 
the  interior  of  Russia  and  at  the  two  capitals  come  from 
the  same  region. 

The  economic  condition  of  the  Jews  in  Southern  Russia, 
which  has  Odessa  as  its  centre,  is  better  than  in  Lithuania, 
or,  at  least,  was  better  before  the  hard  times  which  have 
prevailed  there  for  the  last  few  years.  The  fertile  soil 
of  that  part  of  the  country  and  the  extensive  commerce  of 
Odessa  contribute  much  to  the  prosperity  of  the  district. 
Bessarabian  Jews  also  had  little  to  complain  of  until  the 
recent  famine  which  devastated  the  beautiful  province. 
In  Podolia,  Volhynia,  and  the  entire  part  of  the  country 
adjacent  to  the  Austrian  frontier  ignorance  and  poverty 
go  hand  in  hand.  In  Courland,  where  the  German  influ 
ence  strongly  predominates  and  the  Jews  are,  as  a  rule, 
highly  intelligent,  although  little  acquainted  with  Jewish 
learning,  matters  have  of  late  been  going  from  bad  to 


THE  JEW  IN  RUSSIA  27 

worse.  The  Jews  of  Poland  are  probably  in  a  better 
economic  condition  than  those  of  any  other  part  of  the 
Kussian  empire.  The  government  is  not  so  solicitous 
of  the  welfare  of  the  Polish  peasant  as  it  is  of  that  of  the 
Russian,  and  does  not  "  protect  "  him  as  much  from  the 
Jewish  exploiter.  Thus  left  to  themselves,  both  the  Jews 
and  the  peasants  are  much  more  prosperous  than  in  Rus 
sia.  Up  to  the  latest  renewal  of  the  government's  attempt 
to  Russianize  Poland  in  the  most  brutal  way,  Jews  could 
acquire  farms  and  country  estates  and  were  permitted  to 
live  in  villages.  In  cities,  too,  they  enjoy  more  privileges 
than  in  Russia  proper.  This  does  not  at  all  hurt  the 
Christian  population,  and  Poland  is  to-day  in  a  better 
economic  condition  than  most  parts  of  Russia.  The  exiled 
Jews  from  Moscow  have  so  developed  the  industries  of 
Poland,  especially  of  Lodz,  that  the  rapid  growth  of  the 
population  and  wealth  of  the  city  strongly  remind  one  of 
some  of  the  most  successful  American  business  centres. 

One  of  the  most  noteworthy  contrasts  between  the  eco 
nomic  condition  of  Russia  and  of  this  country  is  that 
whereas  here  extreme  poverty  is  practically  confined  to 
the  large  cities  and  is  almost  unknown  in  small  towns  and 
villages,  in  Russia  it  is  the  reverse.  The  most  abject 
poverty  and  squalor  are  to  be  found  in  the  smaller  towns 
and  to  move  to  a  large  city  is  considered  a  step  forward, 
not  only  because  of  the  opportunity  of  acquiring  educa 
tion  and  experience  but  also  on  account  of  the  better  eco 
nomic  advantages  of  the  larger  localities.  The  reason  for 
this  abnormal  condition  is,  in  all  probability,  the  general 
poverty  of  the  peasantry,  which  renders  them  small  buyers, 
and  the  exorbitant  taxation,  which  is  very  high  in  propor 
tion  to  the  earning  and  spending  capacity  of  the  people, 
and  which  usually  oppresses  the  rural  more  than  the  urban 
population. 

The  intellectual  condition  of  the  Jews  of  Russia  is,  on 
the  average,  much  higher  than  that  of  the  Russians.  There 
are  practically  no  illiterate  male  Jews,  and  there  is  com 
paratively  little  illiteracy  among  the  women,  which  means 
much  in  a  country  where  the  number  of  illiterates  is  so 
large.  True,  many  know  little  more  than  to  read  the 
Hebrew  prayer  book,  but  the  number  of  those  who  know 
more,  especially  in  Lithuania,  is  nevertheless  quite  consid 
erable.  Talmudic  scholars  of  various  degrees  of  eminence 
abound  and  are  highly  respected.  The  educated  Jews,  in 


28  INTRODUCTORY 

the  modern  sense  of  the  term,  may  be  divided  into  two 
classes,  the  maskilim,  and  those  who  have  the  advantage  of 
a  Russian  education.  The  first  are  mostly  self-taught 
Hebraists  with  a  leaning  toward  German  culture.  The 
latter  are  imbued  with  the  love  of  the  Russian  nation  and 
its  literature  and  share  that  almost  childish  enthusiasm 
and  impulsiveness  which  is  characteristic  of  the  Russian 
Intelligent  youth.  In  a  country  like  Russia,  where  only 
a  small  number  are  educated  and  public  opinion  is  not 
crystallized,  no  natural  bond  of  sympathy  exists  between 
the  higher  and  the  lower  classes.  The  wide  gap  between 
them  causes  the  latter  to  appear  more  brutal  and  the 
former  more  intellectual,  but  in  reality  they  are  more 
impractical  and  given  to  abstract  theorizing.  The  intelli 
gent  Russian  is  mostly  an  extremist  in  whatever  views  he 
may  happen  to  entertain,  and  the  Jew,  who  in  all  climes 
and  under  all  conditions  imitates  the  Christian,  is  no  ex 
ception  in  this  respect.  The  maskil,  who  is  usually  in 
clined  to  abstractions  and  is  interested  in  science  and 
literature  for  their  own  sake,  is,  as  a  rule,  indifferent  to 
the  fate  of  the  masses,  condescending  only  to  teach  those 
who  evince  a  desire  to  join  the  aristocracy  of  learning  to 
which  he  belongs.  The  Russianized  Jew,  on  the  other 
hand,  is  more  often  the  enthusiastic  lover  of  the  low  and 
the  down-trodden.  By  taking  advantage  of  the  welcome 
reception  to  all  newcomers,  given  in  the  circles  of  the 
extremely  radical,  irrespective  of  faith  or  descent, 
he  associates  with  Nihilists,  and  then  tries,  with  that  con 
tempt  for  expediency  and  practicability  which  character 
izes  this  class,  to  turn  the  half -savage,  wretched  Russian 
laborers  into  full  fledged  Socialists,  with  the  result,  in  most 
cases,  that  they  become  more  wretched  and  expose  them 
selves  to  useless  danger. 

This  impractical  phase  of  the  character  of  the  Russian 
political  radical  can  be  traced  to  the  chief  source  of  Rus 
sia  's  mental  weakness,  the  imitativeness  of  its  genius ;  a 
high  degree  of  scholarship  and  culture  is  attained  by  the 
upper  classes,  because  in  these  matters  it  is  possible  to 
adopt  foreign  standards.  The  same  may  be  said  of  the 
real  progress  Russia  is  making  in  the  fields  of  industry 
and,  to  some  extent,  of  art.  Adaptation,  adoption,  and 
lack  of  originality  are  noticeable  everywhere.  This  is  why 
Russia  is  perplexed  when  it  comes  to  problems  which  it 
will  not  or  cannot  solve  according  to  foreign  standards. 


.. 

THE  JEW  IN  EUSSIA  29 

It  is  the  pitiful  struggle  of  the  unoriginal  mind  to  assert 
itself  in  a  way  beyond  its  powers  which  makes  the  Rus 
sian's  ideals  so  vague  and  indefinite.  Perceiving  that 
everything  that  is  great  and  good  and  beautiful  comes 
from  abroad,  the  educated  Russian  is  at  variance  with 
himself  as  to  the  question  of  civilization.  He  is  attracted 
and  at  the  same  time  repelled  by  the  culture  of  the  "_rol- 
ten  West/7  disliking  it  as  an  intruder  but  being  unable  to 
do  without  it  or  to  substitute  for  it  anything  originally  Rus 
sian.  In  spite  of  all,  he  remains  mentally  the  slave  of  West 
ern  Europe,  and  is  much  more  influenced  by  its  opinions 
and  its  policies  than  is  commonly  supposed.  The  Rus 
sians'  Pan-slavism  and  the  Russian  Jews'  Zionism  are  but 
local  manifestations  of  the  German's  Mordspatriotismus 
and  the  Frenchman's  chauvinism.  All  that  is  necessary  to 
bring  about  a  reaction  in  favor  of  more  liberal  political 
ideas  and  of  better  treatment  for  the  Jews  is  a  reaction 
in  the  same  direction  in  Germany  and  France,  the  coun 
tries  which  supply  intellectual  Russia  with  ideals  and 
movements.  As  this  is  bound  to  come  before  very  long, 
in  spite  of  all  the  evil  forebodings  of  the  extreme  national 
ists  among  our  friends  or  our  enemies,  the  hope  of  the 
Russian  Jew  for  better  times  at  home  is  not  so  far  from 
being  realized  as  some  pessimists  seem  to  think.  The 
autocracy  itself  came  near  being  modified  or  rooted  out 
before  the  present  wave  of  reactionary  nationalism  spread 
over  Europe.  When  it  will  pass,  as  others  before  it  have 
passed,  and  the  liberal  element  will  regain  ascendancy,  the 
condition  of  the  Jews  will  be  much  improved.  The  great 
moral  support  actively  and  passively  given  by  Germany, 
France,  and  Austria  to  the  autocracy  and  to  Jew- 
baiting  in  Russia  is  entirely  unknown  to  the  intelli 
gent  American  to  whom  "  Europe  "  often  means  Great 
Britain.  Therefore,  it  is  difficult  to  make  him,  or  even  the 
American  Jew,  believe  that  the  persecutions  of  the  Jews 
are  not  of  a  religious  nature  but  a  result  of  reactionary 
conservatism  which  degenerated  into  vicious  tyranny,  and 
for  which  there  is  no  other  remedy  than  the  general  ad 
vancement  of  liberal  ideas  in  the  countries  which  pretend, 
with  some  reason,  to  be  more  civilized  than  Russia.  Rus 
sia  will  certainly  follow  suit  and  all  its  great  problems, 
including  the  Jewish  problem,  will  be  nearer  solution  when 
it  will  again  try  to  deal  with  them  in  that  spirit  of  liberal 
ism  which  influenced  its  actions  in  the  last  generation. 


30  INTEODUCTOEY 

Meanwhile,  the  outlook  is  not  very  promising.  Although 
there  can  be  no  doubt  of  the  ultimate  prevalence  of  liberal 
principles,  not  even  the  most  optimistic  will  dare  to  insist 
that  their  advent  is  imminent.  Perhaps  a  great  war  which 
should  result  in  the  triumph  of  a  free  country  would  have 
the  same  beneficent  results  as  the  Crimean  war,  which 
preceded  the  good  times  under  Alexander  II.  Until  the 
arrival  of  a  more  liberal  era,  migration  and  emigration 
are  the  only  palliatives.  They  cannot  be  considered  rem 
edies,  for  in  spite  of  the  great  numbers  forced  to  leave, 
the  population  of  the  Jews  in  the  Pale  is  steadily  increas 
ing.  Migration  to  the  interior  parts  of  Russia,  which  is 
allowed  only  to  rich  merchants  and  to  skilled  artisans,  and 
is  not  burdened  by  the  assistance  of  organized  charities 
which  give  the  schnorrer  (beggar)  an  advantage  over  the 
meritorious,  is  contributing  much  to  make  the  Jews  and 
the  Russians  better  acquainted,  and  is  preparing  both  for 
friendlier  intercourse  under  the  improved  conditions  which 
are  bound  to  come.  Even  now  it  helps  to  increase  the 
number  of  Russianized  Jews  who  are  to  be  found  in  the 
front  ranks  of  the  better  classes  assisting  in  the  noble 
work  of  advancing  the  material  and  mental  interests  of 
their  country  to  the  best  of  their  abilities.  The  merchant 
and  the  mechanic  are  thus  more  practical  than  the  enthu 
siastic  student  at  home  or  abroad,  who  disdains  the  strug 
gle  for  bourgeois  or  capitalistic  liberal  principles  as  being 
out  of  fashion  and  not  sufficiently  radical  nowadays.  The 
Jew,  in  spite  of  all  restrictions,  plays  an  important  part 
in  the  rapid  development  of  Russia,  and  when  violence 
,  and  malicious  persecution  will  prove,  as  they  have  -always 
proven,  unable  to  suppress  him,  he  will  assume  the  place 
which  belongs  to  him  in  the  social  structure  of  Russia, 
and  which  he  occupies  in  all  civilized  countries.  Persecu 
tion  and  poverty  on  the  one  hand,  and  mistaken  benevo 
lence  on  the  other,  may  induce  some  Jews  to  become  agri 
cultural  or  other  sorts  of  menial  laborers.  But  in  Russia, 
or  out  of  it,  the  Jew,  with  the  help  of  the  fortitude,  dili 
gence,  sobriety,  and  economy,  which  have  served  him 
through  the  darkest  and  bloodiest  ages,  will  rise  as  soon 
as  the  opportunity  offers  itself,  and  will  enter  the  middle 
and  upper  classes,  to  which  he  naturally  belongs. 

In  conclusion,  let  us  console  ourselves  with  the  knowl 
edge  that  although  the  Jews  of  Russia  suffer  terribly, 
they  do  not  suffer  alone.  All  other  non-Russian  inhabi- 

J.  A!' 

^. 


*>*• 

THE  JEW  IN  RUSSIA  31 

tants  are  subject  to  more  or  less  persecution  and  the  entire 
population  is  oppressed  and  plundered  to  an  extent  which 
an  American  would  consider  impossible  to  endure.  The 
only  ray  of  hope  at  present  is  Russia's  rapid  material 
advance.  The  introduction  of  railroads  and  modern  meth 
ods  of  production  are  doing  much  to  raise  the  standard 
of  living,  to  increase  the  number  of  the  well-to-do  and 
intelligent  classes,  and  to  make  the  country  at  large  more 
susceptible  to  civilizing  influences  from  abroad.  When 
once  a  higher  average  is  reached,  Russia  will  deserve  and 
possess  a  better  government  than  now,  and  with  it  will 
come  better  laws  and  better  treatment  alike  for  Jew  and 

- 


(C)  THE  RUSSIAN  JEW  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES1 

It  may  not  be  known  that  the  male  Russian  and  Polish 
Jew  can  generally  read  his  Hebrew  Bible  as  well  as  a 
Yiddish  newspaper,  and  that  many  of  the  Jewish  arrivals 
at  the  barge  office  are  versed  in  rabbinical  literature, 
not  to  speak  of  the  large  number  of  those  who  can  read 
and  write  Russian.  When  attention  is  directed  to  the 
Russian  Jew  in  America,  a  state  of  affairs  is  found  which 
still  further  removes  him  from  the  illiterate  class,  and 
gives  him  a  place  among  the  most  ambitious  and  the 
quickest  to  learn  both  the  written  and  the  spoken  language 
of  the  adopted  country,  and  among  the  easiest  to  be 
assimilated  with  the  population. 

The  cry  raised  by  the  Russian  anti-Semites  against  the 
backwardness  of  the  Jew  in  adopting  the  tongue  and  the 
manners  of  his  birthplace,  in  the  same  breath  in  which 
they  urge  the  government  to  close  the  doors  of  its  schools 
to  subjects  of  the  Hebrew  faith,  reminds  one  of  the  hypo 
critical  miser  who  kept  his  gate  guarded  by  ferocious  dogs, 
and  then  reproached  his  destitute  neighbor  with  holding 
himself  aloof.  This  country,  where  the  schools  and  col 
leges  do  not  discriminate  between  Jew  and  Gentile,  has 
quite  another  tale  to  tell.  The  several  public  evening 
schools  of  the  New  York  Ghetto,  the  evening  school  sup 
ported  from  the  Baron  de  Hirsch  Fund,  and  the  private 
establishments  of  a  similar  character  are  attended  by  thou 
sands  of  Jewish  immigrants,  the  great  majority  of  whom 
come  here  absolutely  ignorant  of  the  language  of  their 
native  country.  Surely  nothing  can  be  more  inspiring  to 
the  public-spirited  citizen,  nothing  worthier  of  the  interest 
of  the  student  of  immigration,  than  the  sight  of  a  gray- 
haired  tailor,  a  patriarch  in  appearance,  coming,  after  a 
hard  day's  work  at  a  sweat-shop,  to  spell  "  cat,  mat,  rat," 
and  to  grapple  with  the  difficulties  of  "  th  "  and  "  w." 
Such  a  spectacle  may  be  seen  in  scores  of  the  class-rooms 

1  This  is  largely  an  article  published  in  the  Atlantic  Monthly,  July,  1898,  cor 
rected  with  reference  to  changes  since  that  time. 

32 


THE  RUSSIAN  JEW  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES     33 

in  the  schools  referred  to.  Hundreds  of  educated  young 
Hebrews  earn  their  living  and  often  pay  their  way  through 
college  by  giving  private  lessons  in  English  in  the  tene 
ment  houses  of  the  district, —  a  type  of  young  men  and 
women  peculiar  to  the  Ghetto.  The  pupils  of  these 
private  tutors  are  the  same  poor,  overworked  sweat-shop 
"  hands  "  of  whom  the  public  hears  so  much  and  knows 
so  little.  A  tenement  house  kitchen  turned,  after  a  scanty 
supper,  into  a  class-room,  with  the  head  of  the  family  and 
his  boarder  bent  over  an  English  school  reader,  may  per-  ^ 
haps  claim  attention  as  one  of  the  curiosities  of  life  in  a 
great  city ;  in  the  Jewish  quarter,  however,  it  is  a  common 
spectacle. 

Nor  does  the  tailor  or  peddler  who  hires  these  tutors, 
as  a  rule,  content  himself  with  an  elementary  knowledge 
of  the  language  of  his  new  home.  I  know  many  Jewish 
workmen  who  before  they  came  here  knew  not  a  word  of 
Russian,  and  were  ignorant  of  any  book  except  the  Scrip 
tures,  or  perhaps  the  Talmud,  but  whose  range  of  English 
reading  places  them  on  a  level  with  the  average  college- 
bred  American. 

The  innumerable  Yiddish  publications  with  which  the 
Jewish  quarter  is  flooded  are  also  a  potent  civilizing  and 
Americanizing  agency.  The  Russian  Jews  of  New  York, 
Philadelphia,  and  Chicago  have  within  the  last  twenty 
years  created  a  vast  periodical  literature  which  furnishes 
intellectual  food  not  only  to  themselves  but  also  to  their 
brethren  in  Europe.  A  feverish  literary  activity  un 
known  among  the  Jews  in  Russia,  Roumania,  and  Austria, 
but  which  has  arisen  here  among  the  immigrants  from 
those  countries,  educates  thousands  of  ignorant  tailors  and 
peddlers,  lifts  their  intelligence,  facilitates  their  study  of 
English,  and  opens  to  them  the  doors  of  the  English 
library.  The  five  million  Jews  living  under  the  Czar  had 
not  a  single  Yiddish  daily  paper  even  when  the  govern-  r\ 
ment  allowed  such  publications,  while  their  fellow  country 
men  and  co-religionists  who  have  taken  up  their  abode  111 
America  publish  seven  dailies  (six  in  New  York  and  one 
in  Chicago),  not  to  mention  the  countless  Yiddish  weeklies 
and  monthlies,  and  the  pamphlets  and  books  which  to-day 
make  New  York  the  largest  Yiddish  book  market  in  the 
world.  If  much  that  is  contained  in  these  publications  is 
rather  crude,  they  are  in  this  respect  as  good  —  or  as  bad 
—  as  a  certain  class  of  English  novels  and  periodicals  from 


34  INTEODUCTOEY 

which  they  partly  derive  their  inspiration.  On  the  other 
hand,  their  readers  are  sure  to  find  in  them  a  good  deal  of 
what  would  be  worthy  of  a  more  cultivated  language. 
They  have  among  their  contributors  some  of  the  best  Yid 
dish  writers  in  the  world,  men  of  undeniable  talent,  and 
these  supply  the  Jewish  slums  with  popular  articles  on 
science,  on  the  history  and  institutions  of  the  adopted 
country,  translations  from  the  best  literatures  of  Europe 
and  America,  as  well  as  original  sketches,  stories,  and 
poems  of  decided  merit.  It  is  sometimes  said  (usually  by 
those  who  know  the  Ghetto  at  second  hand)  that  this  un 
natural  development  of  Yiddish  journalism  threatens  to 
keep  the  immigrant  from  an  acquaintance  with  English. 
Nothing  could  be  further  from  the  truth.  The  Yiddish 
periodicals  are  so  many  preparatory  schools  from  which 
the  reader  is  sooner  or  later  promoted  to  the  English 
newspaper,  just  as  the  several  Jewish  theatres  prepare  his 
way  to  the  Broadway  playhouse,  or  as  the  Yiddish  lecture 
serves  him  as  a  stepping-stone  to  that  English-speaking, 
self -educational  society,  composed  of  workingmen  who 
have  lived  a  few  years  in  the  country,  which  is  another 
characteristic  feature  of  life-in  the  Ghetto.  Truly,  the 
Jews  "  do  not  rot  in  their  slum,  but,  rising,  pull  it  up 
after  them." 

The  only  time  when  Jewish  laborers  threatened  to  come 
in  serious  conflict  with  the  cause  of  American  workingmen 
was  during  the  great  longshoremen's  strike  of  1882,  at 
the  very  beginning  of  the  new  era  in  the  history  of  Jewish 
immigration.  Ignorant  of  the  meaning  of  strikes,  the 
newcomers  blindly  allowed  themselves  to  be  persuaded  by 
representatives  of  ship-owners  to  take  the  places  of  former 
employees.  No  sooner,  however,  had  the  situation  been 
explained  to  the  "  scabs  "  than  they  abandoned  their 
wheelbarrows,  amid  the  applause  of  the  striking  Gentiles. 
Since  then  the  Jewish  workmen  have  been  among  the  most 
faithful  members  of  the  various  trades-unions  of  the 
country.  So  far  from  depressing  wages  and  bringing 
down  the  standard  of  living,  the  Jewish  workingman  has 
been  among  the  foremost  in  the  struggle  for  the  interests 
of  the  wage-earning  class  of  the  country.  If  he  brings 
with  him  a  lower  standard  of  living,  his  keen  suscepti 
bilities,  his  "  intellectual  avidity,"  and  his  "  almost  uni 
versal  and  certainly  commendable  desire  to  improve  his 
condition  "  impel  him  to  raise  that  standard  to  the  level 


THE  RUSSIAN  JEW  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES     35 

of  his  new  surroundings.  Unlike  some  of  the  immigrants 
of  other  nationalities,  the  Essex  Street  Jew  does  not  re 
main  here  in  the  same  plight  in  which  he  came.  Poor  as 
he  is,  he  strives  to  live  like  a  civilized  man,  and  the  money 
which  another  workman  perhaps  might  spend  on  drink  and 
sport  he  devotes  to  the  improvement  of  his  home  and  the 
education  of  his  children.  If  "it  may  be  stated  as  axio 
matic  that  home-builders  are  good  citizens,"  the  Jewish 
immigrant  makes  a  very  good  citizen  indeed. 

I  have  visited  the  houses  of  many  American  working- 
men,  in  New  England  and  elsewhere,  as  well  as  the  resi 
dences  of  their  Jewish  shopmates,  and  I  have  found 
scarcely  a  point  of  difference.  The  squalor  of  the  typical 
tenement  house  of  the  Ghetto  is  far  more  objectionable  and 
offensive  to  the  people  who  are  doomed  to  live  in  it  than 
to  those  who  undertake  slumming  expeditions  as  a  fad,  and 
is  entirely  due  to  the  same  economical  conditions  which  are 
responsibile  for  the  lack  of  cleanliness  in  the  homes  of 
such  poor  workingmen  as  are  classed  among  the  most 
desirable  contribution  to  the  population.  The  houses  of 
the  poor  Irish  laborers  who  dwell  on  the  outskirts  of  the 
great  New  York  Ghetto  (and  they  are  not  worse  than  the 
houses  occupied  by  the  poor  Irish  families  of  tl^e  West 
Side)  are  not  better,  in  point  of  cleanliness,  than  the  resi 
dences  of  their  Jewish  neighbors.  The  following  state 
ment,  which  is  taken  from  the  report  made  by  the  Tene 
ment  House  Committee  to  the  Senate  and  Assembly  of  the 
State  of  New  York  on  January  17,  1895,  throws  light  on 
the  subject. 

,  "It  is  evident,"  says  the  committee,  "  that  there  are 
other  potent  causes  besides  density  of  population  at  work  / 
to  affect  the  death-rate  of  the  tenement  districts,  and  the 
most  obvious  one  is  race  or  nationality.  It  will  be  observed 
at  once  that  the  wards  showing  the  greatest  house  density 
combined  with  a  low  death-rate,  namely  the  Tenth  and 
Seventh  Wards,  are  very  largely  populated  by  Russian  and 
Polish  Jews.  This  is,  in  fact,  the  Jewish  quarter  of  the 
city.  On  the  other  hand,  the  wards  having  the  highest 
death-rate  .  .  .  constitute  two  of  the  numerous  Italian 
colonies  which  are  distributed  through  the  city.  .  .  . 
The  greatest  density  (57.2  tenants  to  a  house)  is  in  the 
Tenth  Ward  (almost  exclusively  occupied  by  Jews),  which 
also  has  the  lowest  death-rate.  .  .  .  The  low  death- 
rates  of  the  Seventh  and  Tenth  Wards  are  largely  accounted 


36  INTRODUCTORY 

for  by  the  fact  previously  mentioned,  that  they  are  popu 
lated  largely  by  Russian  Jews. ' ' 

To  be  sure,  life  in  a  Tenth  Ward  tenement  house  is 
wretched  enough,  but  this  has  nothing  to  do  with  the 
habits  and  inclinations  of  its  inmates.  It  is  a  broad  sub 
ject,  one  which  calls  in  question  the  whole  economic  ar 
rangement  of  our  time,  and  of  which  the  sweating  system 
—  the  great  curse  of  the  Ghetto  —  is  only  one  detail. 

Is  the  Russian  Jew  responsible  for  the  sweating  system? 
He  did  not  bring  it  with  him.  He  found  it  already  devel 
oped  here.  In  its  varied  forms  it  exists  in  other  industries 
as  well  as  in  the  tailoring  trades.  But  far  from  resigning 
himself  to  his  burden  the  Jewish  tailor  is  ever  struggling 
to  shake  it  from  his  shoulder.  Nor  are  his  efforts  futile. 
In  many  instances  the  sweat-shop  system  has  been  abol 
ished  or  its  curse  mitigated.  The  sweating  system  and  its 
political  ally,  the  "  ward  heeler/'  are  accountable  for 
ninety-nine  per  cent,  of  whatever  vice  may  be  found  in  the 
Ghetto,  and  the  Jewish  tailor  is  slowly  but  surely  emanci 
pating  himself  from  both.  "  The  redemption  of  the  work 
ers  must  be  effected  by  the  workers  themselves  "  is  the 
motto  of  the  two  dailies  which  the  Jewish  workingmen 
publish  for  themselves  in  New  York.  The  recurring  tailor 
strikes,  whose  frequency  has  been  seized  upon  by  the 
"  funny  men  "  of  the  daily  press,  are  far  less  droll  than 
they  are  represented  to  be.  Would  that  the  public  could 
gain  a  deeper  insight  into  these  struggles  than  is  afforded 
by  newspaper  reports !  Hidden  under  an  uncouth  surface 
would  be  found  a  great  deal  of  what  constitutes  the  true 
poetry  of  modern  life, —  tragedy  more  heart-rending,  ex^ 
amples  of  a  heroism  more  touching,  more  noble,  and  more 
thrilling,  than  anything  that  the  richest  imagination  of  the 
romanticist  can  invent.  While  to  the  outside  observer  the 
struggles  may  appear  a  fruitless  repetition  of  meaningless 
conflicts,  they  are,  like  the  great  labor  movement  of  which 
they  are  a  part,  ever  marching  onward,  ever  advancing. 

The  anti-Semitic  assertion  that  the  Jew  as  a  rule  avoids 
productive  labor,  which  is  pure  calumny  so  far  as  the  Jews 
of  Russia,  Austria,  and  Roumania  are  concerned,  would 
certainly  be  out  of  place  in  this  country,  where  so  many 
of  the  Jewish  immigrants  are  among  the  most  diligent 
wage-earners.  As  to  the  remainder,  it  includes,  besides  a 
large  army  ofVoor  peddlers,  thousands  of  such  "  business 
men  "  as  neiv^xiealers  and  rag-men,  whose  occupations  are 


THE  RUSSIAN  JEW  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES      37 

scarcely  less  productive  or  more  agreeable  than  manual 
labor. 

Farming  settlements  of  Jews  have  not  been  very  success 
ful  in  this  country.  There  are  some  Jews  in  Connecticut, 
in  New  Jersey,  and  in  the  Western  states,  who  derive  a 
livelihood  from  agriculture,  but  the  majority  of  the  Jewish 
immigrants  who  took  to  tilling  the  soil  in  the  eighties  have 
been  compelled  to  sell  or  to  abandon  their  farms,  and  to 
join  the  urban  population.  But  how  many  American  farm 
ers  have  met  with  a  similar  fate !  This  experience  is  part  of 
the  same  great  economic  question,  and  it  does  not  seem  to 
have  any  direct  bearing  on  the  peculiar  inclinations  or  dis 
inclinations  of  the  Hebrew  race.  It  may  not  be  generally 
known  that  in  southern  Russia  there  are  many  flourishing 
farms  which  are  owned  and  worked  by  Jews,  although, 
owing  to  their  legal  disabilities,  the  titles  are  fictitiously 
held  by  Christians. 

Hundreds  of  Russian  and  Polish  Jews  have  been  more 
or  less  successful  in  business,  and  the  names  of  several  of 
them  are  to  be  found  on  the  signs  along  Broadway. 

The  first  educated  Russian  Hebrews  to  come  to  this 
country  were  attracted  neither  by  the  American  colleges 
nor  by  the  access  of  their  race  to  a  professional  career.  In 
the  minds  of  some  cultured  enthusiasts,  the  general  craze 
for  shaking  off  the  dust  of  the  native  land  and  seeking 
shelter  under  the  stars  and  stripes  crystallized  in  the  form 
of  a  solution  of  the  Jewish  question.  Of  the  two  move 
ments  which  were  set  on  foot  in  1882  by  the  Palestinians 
and  the  Americans,  the  American  movement  seemed  the 
more  successful.  Several  emigrant  parties  (the  Eternal 
People,  New  Odessa)  were  sent  out  with  a  view  to  estab 
lishing  agricultural  colonies.  The  whole  Jewish  race  was 
expected  by  the  Americans  to  follow  suit  in  joining  the 
farming  force  of  the  United  States,  and  numbers  of  Jewish 
students  left  the  Russian  universities  and  gymnasiums  to 
enlist  in  the  pioneer  parties.  All  these  parties  broke  up, 
some  immediately  upon  reaching  New  York,  others  after 
an  abortive  attempt  to  put  their  plans  into  practice, 
although  in  several  instances  undertakings  in  the  same 
direction  have  proved  partially  successful.  The  would-be 
pioneers  were  scattered  through  the  Union,  where  they 
serve  their  brethren  as  physicians,  druggists,  dentists,  law 
yers,  or  teachers. 

Only  from  three  to  five  per  cent,  of  the  vacancies  in  the 


38  INTEODUCTORY 

Eussian  universities  and  gymnasiums  are  open  to  appli 
cants  of  the  Mosaic  faith.  As  a  consequence,  the  various 
university  towns  of  Germany,  Switzerland,  Belgium, 
France,  and  Austria  have  each  a  colony  of  Russo-Jewisk 
pilgrims  of  learning.  The  impecunious  student,  however, 
finds  a  university  course  in  those  countries  inaccessible. 
Much  more  favorable  in  this  respect  is  the  United  States, 
where  students  from  among  the  Jewish  immigrants  find  it 
possible"  to  sustain  themselves  during  their  college  course 
by  some  occupation ;  and  this  advantage  has  to  some  extent 
made  this  country  the  Mecca  of  that  class  of  young  men. 
-It  is  not,  however,  always  the  educated  young  men,  the 
graduates  of  Russian  gymnasiums,  from  whom  the  Rus 
sian  members  at  the  American  colleges  are  recruited.  Not 
to  speak  of  the  hundreds  of  immigrant  boys  and  girls  who 
reach  the  New  York  City  College  or  the  Normal  College  by 
way  of  the  grammar  schools  of  the  Ghetto,  there  are  in 
the  colleges  of  New  York,  Philadelphia,  Chicago,  and  Bos 
ton,  as  well  as  among  the  professional  men  of  the  Jewish 
colonies,  not  a  few  former  peddlers  or  workmen  who  re 
ceived  their  first  lessons  in  the  rudimentary  branches  of 
education  within  the  walls  of  an  American  tenement  house. 
I  was  once  consulted  by  an  illiterate  Jewish  peddler  of 
thirty-two  who  was  at  a  loss  to  choose  between  a  medical 
college  and  a  dry  goods  store.  "  I  have  saved  two  thou 
sand  dollars,"  he  said.  "  Some  friends  advise  me  to  go 
into  the  dry  goods  business,  but  I  wish  to  be  an  educated 
man  and  live  like  one." 

The  Russian-speaking  population  is  represented  also  in 
the  colleges  for  women.  There  are  scores  of  educated 
Russian  girls  in  the  sweat-shops,  and  their  life  is  one  of 
direst  misery, —  of  overwork  in  the  shop,  and  of  privations 
at  home. 

PoliticallY^the  Jewish,  quarter  is  among  the  most  prom 
ising  districts "  In^TE^inetrOp'olis.  The  influence  of  the 
vote-buyer,  which  is  the  blight  of  every  poor  neighborhood 
in  the  city,  becomes  in  the  Ghetto  smaller  and  smaller. 
There  is  no  method  of  determining  the  number  of  votes 
which  are  secured  for  either  of  the  two  leading  parties 
by  any  of  the  several  forms  of  bribery  enumerated  by  Mr. 
James  Bryce. 

If  some  immigrants  have  not  the  "  adequate  conception 
of  the  significance  of  our  institutions,"  of  which  Vice- 
president  Fairbanks  speaks,  it  is  the  American  slum  poli- 


THE  RUSSIAN  JEW  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES     39 

tician  who  gives  the  newcomer  lessons  in  that  conception; 
and  if  it  happens  to  be  an  object  lesson  in  the  form  of  a 
two-dollar  bill  and  a  drink,  the  political  organization  which 
depends  upon  such  a  mode  of  "  rolling  up  a  big  vote  "  is 
certainly  as  much  to  blame  as  the  ignorant  bribe-taker. 

The  ward  heeler  is  as  active  in  the  Ghetto  as  elsewhere. 
Aided  by  an  army  of  "  workers,"  which  is  largely  made 
up  of  the  lowest  dregs  of  the  neighborhood,  he  knocks,  on 
election  day,  at  the  door  of  every  tenement  house  apart 
ment,  while  on  the  street  the  vote  market  goes  on  in  open 
daylight  as  freely  as  it  did  before  there  was  a  Parkhurst 
to  wage  war  against  a  guilty  police  organization.  This 
statement  is  true  of  every  destitute  district,  and  the  Jew 
ish  quarter  is  no  exception  to  the  rule.  As  was  revealed 
by  the  Lexow  committee,  some  of  the  leading  district 
"  bosses  "  in  the  great  city,  including  a  civil  justice,  owe 
their  power  to  the  political  co-operation  of  criminals  and 
women  of  the  street.  Unfortunately  this  is  also  the  case 
with  the  Jewish  neighborhood,  where  every  wretch  living 
on  the  profits  of  vice,  almost  without  exception,  is  a  mem 
ber  of  some  political  club  and  an  active  "  worker  "  for 
one  of  the  two  "  machines,"  and  where,  during  the  cam 
paign,  every  disreputable  house  is  turned  into  an  elec 
tioneering  centre.  If  the  Tenth  Ward  has  come  to  be 
called  "  the  Klondike  "  of  the  police,  so  much  the  worse 
for  the  parties  who  are  directly  responsible  for  the  evil 
which  justifies  both  that  appellation  and  the  name  of 
"  Tenderloin,"  which  is  borne  by  a  more  prosperous 
neighborhood  than  the  Ghetto. 

The  malady  is  painful  enough,  but  it  is  not  the  guilty 
politician  from  whom  the  remedy  is  to  be  expected.  As  to 
the  Jewish  quarter,  the  doctrine  of  self-help  is  practiced  by 
the  workingmen  politically  as  well  as  economically.  In 
proportion  as  the  intelligence  of  the  district  is  raised  by 
the  thousand  and  one  educational  agencies  at  work,  "  the 
many  characteristics  of  the  best  citizens,"  the_jIfi3EaloJ  the 
East  Side  come  to  the  front,  and  the  power  of  the  corrup- 
tionist  wanes. 

The  Jewish  immigrants  look  upon  the  United  States 
as  their  country,  and  when  it  engaged  in  war  they  did  not 
shirk  their  duty.  They  contributed  three  times  their 
quota  of  volunteers  to  the  army,  and  they  had  their  repre 
sentatives  among  the  first  martyrs  of  the  campaign,  two 
of  the  brave  American  sailors  who  were  wounded  at  Car- 


40  INTRODUCTORY 

denas   and  Cienfuegos  being  the   sons   of   Hebrew  immi 
grants. 

The  Russian  Jew  brings  with  him  the  quaint  customs  of 
a  religion  full  of  poetry  and  of  the  sources  of  good  citizen 
ship.  The  orthodox  synagogue  is  not  merely  a  house  of 
prayer;  it  is  an  intellectual  centre,  a  mutual  aid  society,  a 
fountain  of  self-denying  altruism,  and  a  literary  club,  no 
less  than  a  place  of  worship.  The  study-rooms  of  the  hun 
dreds  of  synagogues,  where  the  good  old  people  of  the 
Ghetto  come  to  read  and  discuss  "  words  of  law  "  as  well 
as  the  events  of  the  day,  are  crowded  every  evening  in  the 
week  with  poor  street  peddlers,  and  with  those  gray-haired, 
misunderstood  sweat-shop  hands  of  whom  the  public  hears 
every  time  a  tailor  strike  is  declared.  So  few  are  the  joys 
which  this  world  has  to  spare  for  those  overworked,  en 
feebled  victims  of  "  the  inferno  of  modern  times  "  that 
their,  religion  is  to  many  of  them  the  only  thing  which 
makes  life  worth  living.  In  the  fervor  of  prayer  or  the 
abandon  of  religious  study  they  forget  the  grinding  pov 
erty  of  their  homes.  Between  the  walls  of  the  synagogue, 
on  the  top  floor  of  some  ramshackle  tenement  house,  they 
sing  beautiful  melodies,  some  of  them  composed  in  the 
caves  and  forests  of  Spain,  where  the  wandering  people 
worshiped  the  God  of  their  fathers  at  the  risk  of  their 
lives;  and  these  and  the  sighs  and  sobs  of  the  Days  of 
Awe,  the  thrill  that  passes  through  the  heartbroken  talith- 
covered  congregation  when  the  shofar  blows,  the  mirth 
which  fills  the  house  of  God  and  the  tenement  homes  upon 
the  Rejoicing  of  the  Law,  the  tearful  greetings  and  hum 
bled  peace-makings  on  Atonement  Eve,  the  mysterious 
light  of  the  Chanuccah  (a  festival  in  memory  of  the 
restoration  of  the  Temple  in  the  time  of  the  Maccabeans) 
candles,  the  gifts  and  charities  of  Purim  (a  festival  com 
memorating  the  events  in  the  time  of  Esther),  the  joys  and 
kingly  solemnities  of  Passover, —  all  these  pervade  the  at 
mosphere  of  the  Ghetto  with  a  beauty  and  a  charm  without 
which  the  life  of  its  older  residents  would  often  be  one  of 
unrelieved  misery. 


S   § 
' 


H      ^ 


o     & 
o     ^ 


ir :,-«.  *^<fe 


II 

GENERAL  ASPECTS  OF  THE 
POPULATION 


fctCOMDl  I  I  \  \  (JQO 


NEW   YORK — LOWER  EAST   SIDE 


GENERAL  ASPECTS  OF  THE 
POPULATION 

(A)  NEW  YORK 

There  is  no  other  city  in  the  world  that  contains  as  many 
Jews  as  there  are  in  New  York.  A  conservative  estimate, 
based  upon  the  police  census  and  the  reports  of  the  Board 
of  Health,  places  the  total  Jewish  population  of  Greater 
New  York  at  about  600,000  persons,  which  is  probably 
less  than  the  actual  number. 

The  Russian  Jews  (under  which  generic  name  all  the 
immigrants  from  Russia,  Roumania,  Galicia,  Poland  and 
other  countries  of  Eastern  Europe  since  1881,  are  classed) 
constitute  by  far  the  larger  portion  of  this  great  aggrega 
tion  of  Israelites. 

Within  a  few  miles  of  New  York,  there  are  many  thou 
sands  more  of  the  chosen  people,  for  there  are  large  settle 
ments  of  Russian  Jews  in  Jersey  City,  Elizabeth,  Bayonne, 
Newark,  and  a  census  of  Jews  in  New  Jersey  would  prob 
ably  show  a  surprisingly  large  number  in  that  state. 

Aside  from  the  Jews  distributed  more  or  less  thickly  all 
over  the  better  residential  sections  of  New  York,  there  are 
several  well  defined  districts  whose  population  is  practic 
ally  wholly  Jewish.  The  largest  of  these  is  situated  on  the 
lower  east  side  of  the  Island  and  Borough  of  Manhattan, 
and  is  easily  entitled  to  be  called  the  Great  Ghetto.  The 
next  largest  is  the  settlement  known  as  Brownsville,  which 
lies  in  the  eastern  district  of  the  Borough  of  Brooklyn. 
There  is  another  extensive  settlement  of  Jewish  immigrants 
on  the  upper  east  side  of  the  Borough  of  Manhattan  in 
the  vicinity  of  One  Hundredth  Street,  and  a  fourth  in  the 
northern  part  of  the  Borough  of  Brooklyn,  the  centre  of 
which  is  on  Seigel,  Moore,  and  Varet  Streets.  Each  of 
the  minor  Ghettos  has  certain  peculiarities  due  to  its  situa 
tion,  but  in  any  general  study  of  conditions,  the  student 
need  only  turn  to  the  Great  Ghetto  (of  whose  main  fea 
tures  the  smaller  settlements  are,  after  all,  living  minia- 

43 


44         GENERAL  ASPECTS  OF  THE  POPULATION 

tures)  in  order  to  get  the  best  possible  view  of  the  life 
of  the  Russian  Jew  in  the  American  metropolis. 

No  walls  shut  in  this  Ghetto,  but  once  within  the  Jew 
ish  quarter,  one  is  as  conscious  of  having  entered  a  distinct 
section  of  the  city  as  one  would  be  if  the  passage  had  been 
through  massive  portals,  separating  this  portion  of  the 
lower  East  Side  from  the  non-Jewish  districts  of  New 
York. 

If  the  entry  into  the  Ghetto  has  been  made  from  the 
Bowery  by  way  of  one  of  the  streets  that  run  eastwardly 
to  the  river  —  it  may  be  Broome,  Delancey,  Rivington,  or 
Stanton, —  the  attention  of  the  observant  visitor  is  at  once 
engaged.  On  both  sides  of  the  streets,  tower  the  gloomy, 
dingy  tenement  houses,  built  on  their  long,  narrow  lots-^ 
the  curse  of  New  York.  The  peculiar  system  of  cutting 
city  lots  into  sections  one  hundred  feet  deep  by  twenty-five 
feet  wide  has  almost  compelled  the  erection  of  buildings 
which  are  bad  from  every  sanitary  point  of  view.  It  takes 
two  or  more  lots  to  give  space  enough  to  erect  a  tenement 
house  that  will  give  necessary  light  and  air  to  the  residents. 

As  a  happy  offset  to  the  miserable  apologies  for  habitable 
dwellings  are  the  handsome  and  spacious  schoolhouses, 
many  of  them  striking  object  lessons  left  by  a  reform  city 
government  —  still  insufficient  for  the  needs  of  this  over 
crowded  quarter,  although  they  greet  the  eye  every  few 
blocks. 

The  main  Ghetto  of  New  York  embraces  the  Seventh, 
Tenth  and  Thirteenth  "Wards,  as  well  as  the  southern  por 
tions  of  sanitary  districts  A  and  B  of  the  Seventeenth 
Ward,  and  of  sanitary  districts  A  and  C  of  the  Eleventh 
Ward.  This  area  contains  about  500  acres,  the  average 
density  being  approximately  500  to  600  persons  to  the 
acre. 

This  great  Jewish  city  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  Hous 
ton  Street  (although  there  are  now  many  Russian  Jews  liv 
ing  north  of  this  point),  on  the  west  by  the  Bowery,  and  on 
the  east  and  southeast  —  for  the  shape  of  the  Ghetto  is  that 
of  a  square,  with  its  southeastern  corner  cut  off  —  by  the 
East  River.  Adjoining  the  Jewish  quarter  on  the  north 
lies  "  Little  Germany,"  whither  its  present  residents 
moved  when  driven  out  from  Grand  and  Canal  Streets  by 
the  advent  of  the  Russian  Jews,  and  whence  they  bid  fair 
to  be  driven  again  owing  to  the  encroachments  of  the 
steady  streams  of  Hebrew  immigrants,  who  are  still  com- 


NEW  YOEK  45 

ing  in  thousands  from  Eussia  and  Roumania  direct  to  New 
York. 

Along  the  East  River  front  there  is  still  a  fringe  of 
Irish,  Italian,  and  American-born  residents,  but  otherwise 
the  whole  five  hundred  acres  are  practically  solidly  in 
habited  by  Jews.1 

East  Broadway,  which  is  the  main  business  thoroughfare 
of  the  quarter,  divides  the  Ghetto  into  two.  The  con 
ditions  prevailing  in  the  more  southerly  portion  are 
distinguishable  from  those  of  the  more  northerly  half,  not 
so  much  because  they  are  better,  but  because  those  prevail 
ing  in  the  northern  section  are  worse.  Generally  speak 
ing,  the  economic  status  of  those  who  live  in  the  streets 
to  the  south  of  East  Broadway  is  not  so  bad  as  that  of  the 
residents  farther  to  the  north,  because  merchants,  manu 
facturers  —  some  of  them  doing  business  on  a  fairly  large 
scale  — •  as  well  as  their  clerks  and  other  employees,  live  in 
the  southern  section,  while  in  the  northern  portion  are  the 
workshops  and  the  badly  built  and  worse  kept  tenements, 
where  thousands  upon  thousands  of  workers  in  the  under 
paid  needle  industries  are  housed. 

The  streets  in  the  southern  portion  are  wider,  too,  than 
the  thoroughfares  further  north,  and  there  are  more  pri 
vate  houses  to  relieve  the  congestion  which  the  tenement 
houses,  front  and  rear,  cause  in  the  areas  in  which  they  are 
most  thickly  built.  The  tenements,  too,  are  kept  in  bet 
ter  condition  in  the  southern  half. 

It  is  in  the  narrow  streets  extending  to  the  north  from 
East  Broadway,  that  the   "  sweater  "   works  and  exists.,, 
The  tenement  houses  in  this  section  are  of  two  main  types 
• —  the  old  fashioned  front  and  rear  tenement,  and  the  mod-  / 
ern   "  dumb-bell  double-decker."     A  prominent  architect/ 
of  New  York  has  said  that  no  misfortune  that  has  ever/ 
come  to  the  metropolis  in  the  way  of  fire,  flood,  or  pesti-^ 
lence,  has  been  so  disastrous  as  the  way  that  the  city  has 
been  cut  up  into  long  and  narrow  lots,  twenty-five  by  one 
hundred  feet,  upon  a  single  one  of  which  it  is  not  possible  I 
to  build  a  good  habitation  for  many  families. 

Owing  to  the  physical  limitations  of  the  Island  of  Man-'' 

1  The  Federation  of  Churches  and  Christian  Workers  of  New  York,  in  a 
report  upon  social  conditions  in  the  Fourteenth  Assembly  District,  which  in 
cludes  the  section  of  New  York  between  Seventh  and  Fourteenth  Street,  east 
of  Third  Avenue  (the  northern  extension  of  the  Bowery)  shows  17  per  cent, 
of  the  families  in  this  district  are  Jewish.  The  population  of  the  section  is 
about  50,000  persons,  of  whom  20,000,  or  40  per  cent.,  are  Germans. 


46         GENERAL  ASPECTS  OF  THE  POPULATION 

hattan,  the  vastness  of  the  population  has  caused  the  value 
of  land  to  rise  to  enormous  figures.  Consequently,  in 
order  to  pay  the  owner  of  property  a  fair  return  upon  his 
investment,  it  has  been  found  necessary  to  erect  houses 
sheltering  many  families  in  almost  all  portions  of  the  city. 
Even  then  the  rents  are  very  high.  Measured  by  square 
feet  of  lot  space  there  are  few  portions  of  the  city  where 
such  a  high  rate  of  rent  is  paid  as  in  the  Great  Ghetto. 
Take,  for  example,  a  dumb-bell  double-decker  of  the  most 
modern  type.  Such  a  house  is  built  with  six  stories  and  a 
basement,  making  practically  seven  stories,  for  there  are 
stores  in  the  basement,  the  floor  of  which  is  only  a  few 
feet  below  the  street  level.  There  are  four  families  to 
each  floor,  and  two  stores  and  living  rooms  for  two  fam 
ilies  in  the  basement.  The  absurdly  low  rent  of  $10  per 
month  for  each  apartment  or  store  would  bring  $3,360 
for  the  house  for  the  year.  This  is,  however,  con 
siderably  less  than  the  actual  gross  return  from  such 
houses,  which  is  generally  rather  over  ten  per  cent,  than 
under  ten  per  cent,  of  the  cost.  A  lot  25  feet  by  100  feet 
in  the  Jewish  quarter  would  cost  not  less  than  $20,000, 
and  a  similar  sum,  at  least,  would  be  required  to  erect  a 
dumb-bell  double-decker  of  the  regulation  kind.  Neverthe 
less,  in  spite  of  these  high  figures,  the  rents  charged  in 
some  of  these  tenements  are  so  exorbitant  that  in  spite  of 
losses  from  non-payment  of  rentals,  a  net  return  of  ten 
per  cent,  or  more  is  realized  upon  the  sums  invested. 
Many  of  the  worst  tenements  are  owned  by  Russian  Jews 
themselves,  who  live  within  the  confines  of  the  Ghetto. 

The  mode  whereby  they  acquire  title  to  such  valuable 
holdings  is  this:  A  house  and  lot  may  be  worth  $40,000. 
The  "  owner  "  can  get  a  loan  of  at  least  $28,000  on  such 
a  piece  of  property  at  4%  per  cent,  or  even  4  per  cent, 
and  then  he  puts  as  large  a  second  mortgage  as  possible 
upon  the  property,  sometimes  as  much  as  $7,000,  leaving 
the  owner  to  invest  only  $5,000  of  his  own  money.  Of 
course,  the  risk  is  entirely  his,  for  in  case  of  disaster  he 
would  be  first  to  suffer.  To  offset  this  disadvantage,  he 
sees  to  it  that  he  secures  as  much  as  possible  from  his 
tenants,  giving  them  as  little  as  possible  in  return.  In 
many  cases,  the  "  owner  "  will  net  at  least  $1,000  on  His 
house  by  dint  of  good  management,  or  20  per  cent,  on  his 
investment. 

Remark  has  already  been  made  regarding  the  crowded 


NEW  YORK  47 

condition  of  streets  and  sidewalks  in  the  Jewish  quarter. 
This  is  the  natural  result  of  the  dense  population,  for  if 
the  weather  is  at  all  warm,  it  is  almost  impossible  for  the 
residents  to  remain  indoors,  and  there  is  no  place  to  go  but 
the  street.  Even  in  cold  weather,  the  apartments  are  so 
small  that  the  young  people  cannot  receive  their  friends 
at  home,  and  the  streets,  the  cafes,  the  dance  halls,  or 
other  places  of  amusement  become  the  rallying  point  for 
social  intercourse.  Most  of  the  streets  of  the  quarter  are 
paved  with  asphalt,  which  not  only  permits  of  frequent 
and  easy  cleaning,  but  also  deadens  the  noises  of  traffic, 
of  which  more  than  enough,  however,  are  left  to  disturb 
the  slumbers  of  the  Ghetto  dwellers.  The  front  steps  are 
crowded  during  summer  evenings,  and  also  during  the 
days  when  they  happen  to  be  on  the  shady  side  of  the 
street,  while  during  very  hot  weather  in  mid-summer,  there 
are  sleepers  on  the  sidewalks,  front  steps,  fire  escapes,  and 
roofs,  as  well  as  in  the  parks,  on  the  docks  and  recreation 
piers,  and  in  all  other  places  where  there  is  opportunity 
for  a  breath  of  air. 

There  are  now  a  few  open  play  spaces  in  the  quarter 
that  are  a  blessing  to  the  children.  In  the  summer  time, 
some  of  the  public  schools  throw  open  their  yards  as  play 
grounds,  and  besides  this,  the  city  has  opened  a  number 
of  recreation  piers  along  the  water  front,  where  sweltering 
humanity  may  breathe  in  the  revivifying  breezes  that  play 
over  the  East  River  upon  the  warmest  days.  Further 
more,  the  Educational  Alliance  has  opened  a  roof  garden 
for  the  people  upon  the  top  of  the  building,  and  there  is 
also  a  garden  on  the  roof  of  the  Alfred  Corning  Clark 
Neighborhood  House,  and  one  on  the  top  of  the  University 
Settlement.  One  would  naturally  draw  the  conclusion 
from  the  undesirable  conditions  that  prevail  here,  owing 
to  the  overcrowding  and  defective  way  in  which  the  houses 
are  built,  that  the  mortality  would  be  very  high.  It  is  a 
remarkable  fact  that  on  the  contrary,  the  death  rate  is  low, 
as  is  shown  in  the  discussion  on  Health  and  Sanitation  in 
this  volume. 

This  seems  very  favorable,  but  it  takes  no  account  of  the 
great  amount  of  sickness  and  the  depressed  or  exhausted 
vitality  of  the  residents,  all  of  which  are  part  of  the 
tremendous  arraignment  against  bad  housing  and  urban 
overcrowding. 

The  best  part  of  the  social  life  of  the  Jewish  quarter 


48        GENEEAL  ASPECTS  OF  THE  POPULATION 

centres,  as  it  should,  in  the  home.  The  tenement  house, 
with  its  cramped  quarters,  does  the  very  best  it  can  to 
destroy  home  life.  But  its  best  is  not  the  worst  possible. 
For  in  spite  of  such  physical  limitations  as  the  double- 
decker  tenement  house  imposes,  and  others  slightly  worse, 
the  clans  —  so  many  of  them  as  can  gather  in  the  ten  by 
twelve  front  room  —  always  assemble  to  celebrate  a  bar 
mitzvah  (when  a  Jewish  boy  is  admitted  to  the  faith  at 
the  age  of  thirteen  years)  or  a  b'rith  milah  (circumcision). 
The  older  people  do  pay  visits  to  their  brothers-in-law,  or 
other  relatives,  from  time  to  time.  The  members  of  the 
immediate  family  are  close  together  (more  or  less  neces 
sarily)  all  the  time  they  are  at  home. 

But  the  young  people !  That  is  a  wholly  different  story. 
The  social  life  for  them,  alas!  does  not  make  the  three- 
room  apartment  the  common  centre.  In  the  first  place,  it 
is  not  conducive  to  the  observance  of  the  convenances  to 
have  the  children  put  to  bed  in  the  same  room  where 
Rebecca  is  entertaining  Isaac.  Yet  the  children  must  be 
bedded  somewhere,  and  the  other  two  rooms,  one  of  which 
is  the  kitchen,  are  already  pre-empted.  Therefore,  not  only 
does  Rebecca  refrain  from  receiving  Isaac  in  her  home,  but 
she  is  just  as  unable  to  entertain  Esther  or  Sarah  or  Leah. 
Such  space  as  exists,  the  children  and  the  older  members 
of  the  family  occupy,  and  there  is  no  place  wherein  the 
young  maidens  can  whisper  to  each  other  their  little 
secrets  and  hopes  and  plans,  the  discussion  of  which  sweet 
ens  the  hours  after  the  toil  of  the  day. 

What  is  the  consequence?  There  is  the  street.  Crowd 
ed,  too,  but  there  is  isolation  in  such  a  crowd,  and  the 
street  becomes  the  common  meeting  place  for  man  and 
maid.  Needless  to  say,  the  ethics  and  etiquette  of  the 
streets  are  not  elevating,  and  the  degenerating  effects  are 
not  hidden  from  the  eyes  of  the  observant.  Such  young 
people  soon  become  inoculated  with  the  shallow  cynicism  of 
the  ignorant.  The  Jewish  faith,  as  they  know  it,  with  its 
ceremonies  and  restrictions,  is  to  them  ridiculous  and  con 
temptible.  "  Pleasure/'  and  not  "  duty,"  being  their 
watch-word,  all  that  hampers  freedom  or  self-indulgence 
is  a  kill- joy  to  be  avoided.  Therefore,  the  dance  hall,  the 
vaudeville  theatre,  the  card  game,  the  prize  fight  are  places 
of  frequent  resort.  The  synagogue,  the  lecture  hall,  the 
concert  room,  the  debating  club,  are  not  visited  to  any  ex 
tent  by  this  particular  portion  of  Young  Israel. 


NEW  YORK  49 

There  is,  on  the  other  hand,  a  very  appreciable  number 
of  fairly  well  educated  young  people,  who  have  left  the 
Jewish  religion  of  their  orthodox  parents.  There  is  a  wide 
field  for  work  among  these  young  people.  They  need  a 
leader  possessing  eloquence  and  personal  magnetism  and 
the  power  of  teaching  by  example  the  value  of  a  religious 
life  as  interpreted  by  the  teachings  of  Judaism  in  its  mod 
ern  form. 


PHILADELPHIA — SOUTHEASTERN   SECTION 


r(B)   PHILADELPHIA 

There  is  something  picturesque  in  the  appearance  of  the 
streets  in  the  southern  section  of  the  city,  though  it  may 
not  be  necessarily  attractive  to  the  native  who  sees  but  the 
squalor  and  the  dirt  that  are  part  of  the  picture  which 
forms  itself  in  the  localities  where  the  several  nationalities 
and  races  are  congregated.  The  lower  portion  of  the  city 
contains  fairly  well-defined  groups, —  Russian  Jews,  Ital 
ians,  negroes,  besides  native  Americans,  Irish,  Germans, 
and  people  from  Slavic  countries,  such  as  Russians,  Poles, 
Lithuanians,  and  Hungarians,  which  add  to  the  variegated 
character  of  the  assembly  of  nations  in  the  city. 

The  district  to  which  I  shall  confine  myself  chiefly  in 
cludes  the  First,  Second,  Third,  Fourth,  Fifth  and  Sev 
enth  Wards  of  the  city  of  Philadelphia.  The  area  of  these 
six  wards  is  2.322  square  miles,  and,  as  the  total  area  of  the 
city  is  129.583  square  miles,  the  district  is  about  one- 
fiftieth  of  the  entire  surface  of  the  city.  The  popula 
tion  of  these  six  wards  is  165,385,  according  to  the  census 
of  1900.  The  population  of  the  city  is  1,293,697.  We 
have,  then,  one-eighth  of  the  people  of  the  city  in  an  area 
which  is  but  one-fiftieth  of  the  city.  The  Third  Ward  is 
the  most  densely  populated  in  the  city,  the  number  of  per 
sons  inhabiting  it  being  24,693,  and  as  its  area  is  but  .191 
square  mile,  this  is  an  average  of  129.282  persons  to  the 
square  mile. 

An  inquiry  into  the  Russian-Jewish  population  enables 
me  to  assume  SSjOOO1  as  the  number.  This  is  deduced  from 

iThe  method  of  the  English  Educational  Department  to  ascertain  the  num 
ber  of  children  of  school  age  is  to  divide  the  population  by  six.  This  is  ap 
plied  by  H.  Llewellyn  Smith,  in  Booth's  "  Life  and  Labor  of  the  People," 
Vol.  Ill,  p.  106.  Notwithstanding  the  efforts  of  truant  officers  and  others 
interested  in  the  education  of  children,  the  actual  school  attendance  for 
various  reasons,  never  reaches  the  total  of  children  of  school  age,  but  though 
it  may  approximate  it  more  closely  with  Jewish  children  than  with  most  other 
classes,  in  all  but  the  higher  grades,  we  cannot  absolutely  accept  the  multiple 
of  six  to  obtain  the  population  as  other  elements  vary  in  the  public  school 
conditions  between  this  country  and  Great  Britain.  Factors  which  must  be 
considered  are  the  greater  size  of  the  Russian  Jewish  families^  on  the  one  hand 
and,  on  the  other,  the  greater  number  of  adults  in  the  immigrant  population, 
some  of  whom  would  not  be  accounted  for  in  a  calculation  based  merely  on 
school  attendance.  However,  these  two  factors  in  a  measure  neutralize  each 

51 


52         GENERAL  ASPECTS  OF  THE  POPULATION 

the  figures  as  to  the  number  of  Jewish  children  attending 
the  public  schools.  The  number  in  schools  of  the  section 
bounded  by  Spruce  Street  on  the  north,  Moore  Street 
on  the  south,  the  Delaware  River  on  the  east,  and  Nine 
teenth  Street  on  the  west,  is  11,686  out  of  a  total  of  21,515 
pupils. 

The  negro  population  of  these  lower  wards  is  18,000  in 
round  numbers,  according  to  the  United  States  Census 
statistics.  The  Italians  are  assumed  to  number  28,000,  ac 
cording  to  the  Census.  The  Christians  from  Slav  countries 
may  number  between  5,000  and  10,000.  The  remainder  of 
50,000  are  Irish,  German  and  native  American. 

When  the  Russian  Jewish  people  first  came  here,  as  a 
consequence  of  the  persecutions,  they  settled  in  dwellings 
in  the  lower  section,  because  rents  were  as  cheap  there  as 
anywhere.  With  relatives  and  friends  coming  year  after 
year,  and  with  natural  accretions,  the  population  grew  and 
grew  until  now  it  has  become  a  fair  proportion  of  the 
southeastern  section  of  the  city.  It  has  supplanted  not 
only  the  German  Jewish  and  Polish  Jewish  population, 
which  was  originally  in  this  section,  but  it  has  swarmed  into 
Pine  and  Spruce  Streets,  formerly  occupied  by  old  Phila 
delphia  families.  It  has,  in  some  cases,  made  the  streets 
more  respectable  and  less  dangerous  morally.  It  has  even, 
in  some  instances,  displaced  Italians,  just  as  Italians  have 
displaced  some  native-born  and  others  of  foreign  national 
ities  in  sections  immediately  west  of  the  Jewish  portions. 
Some  of  the  well-to-do  Jews  are  in  the  northern  portion  of 
the  section  on  Spruce  and  Pine  Streets.  Lombard  is  lower- 
grade,  especially  because  of  its  mixture  with  the  lower-class 
negroes.  South  Street  is  a  bee-hive  of  business  activity 
among  the  Jewish  people.  Parts  of  Bainbridge  Street  are 
similarly  active.  From  Fitzwater  down,  for  several  blocks, 
we  find  a  dividing  line  at  Fifth  and  Sixth  Streets,  west  of 
which  are  Italians,  and  east  of  which  are  Russian  Jews. 
Below  Christian  the  groupings  are  less  distinct.  The  Jew 
ish  population  has,  however,  gradually  moved  down  so  that 
some  may  be  found  as  far  south  as  Moore  Street.  Some 

other.  In  our  statement  of  more  than  11,000  Jewish  school  children,  we  un 
questionably  have  a  large  majority  of  the  children  between  the  age  of  three  and 
thirteen.  We  must,  in  addition,  account  for  all  under  the  first  and  over  the 
second,  apart  from  those  not  attending  school.  Let  us  arbitrarily  assume  that 
the  school  children  are,  in  a  proportion,  approximately  one-fifth  of  the  Jewish 
population  of  the  district.  This  will  make  the  total  about  55,000.  There  are 
probably  15,000  Russian  Jews  in  other  sections  of  the  city,  making  70,000 
out  of  a  total  of  approximately  100,000  Jews. 


PHILADELPHIA  53 

well-to-do  families  have  moved  to  Wharton  Street  and 
streets  running  north  and  south  in  the  neighborhood.  Of 
the  north  and  south  streets,  Fourth  contains  the  most  thick 
ly  settled  Jewish  population.  Large  numbers  may  be 
found  all  the  way  from  Spruce  to  Reed.  Second  and 
Third  also  contain  a  large  Jewish  population,  especially  be 
tween  Pine  and  Wharton.  On  Fifth  Street,  too,  it  is  simi 
larly  predominant  as  far  as  Washington  Avenue,  and  on 
Sixth  Street  as  far  as  Fitzwater.  Immediately  west  of 
the  northern  portion  of  the  Jewish  section  are  nu 
merous  negroes,  and  southwest  is  the  section  predominantly 
Italian. 

In  the  northern  portion  of  this  down-town  district  the 
Jewish  people  mingle  with  the  left-overs  of  Americans. 
On  Spruce  Street  they  are  with  the  so-called  better  element 
of  the  Americans.  On  Bainbridge  Street  the  Italians  be 
gin  to  take  a  share.  On  Fitzwater  Street  the  Italians 
become  more  emphatic  in  their  claim  for  attention  by 
virtue  of  their  numbers.  At  Sixth  and  Fitzwater  Streets 
the  Jews  and  Italians  may  be  said  to  battle  for  supremacy 
as  to  numbers.  From  this  corner,  west  and  south,  Italians 
are  settled  in  in  thick  numbers.  The  main  streets  they 
inhabit  in  this  neighborhood  are  Seventh,  Eighth,  Ninth, 
and  Tenth,  from  Fitzwater  Street  to  Washington  Avenue, 
including  Catharine,  Christian  and  Carpenter,  besides  a 
number  of  smaller  streets  and  alleys.  At  Fifth  and  Car 
penter  Streets  the  Italians  again  meet  the  Jewish  people, 
who  are  preponderant  east  of  this  point.  Sometimes  a 
block  is  inhabited  in  its  outer  boundaries  by  one  nationality 
chiefly,  and  in  the  streets  within  by  another. 

In  the  lower  wards  on  the  Delaware  River  front,  besides 
Irish  and  American,  there  are  probably  at  least  two  thou 
sand  persons  from  Slavic  countries,  chiefly  Poles,  but  also 
some  Hungarians  and  Lithuanians.  These  are  largely  in  a 
block  bounded  by  Lombard  Street  on  the  north,  Carpenter 
Street  on  the  south,  the  Delaware  River  on  the  east,  and 
Third  Street  on  the  west. 

The  Jewish  population  has  spread  north  as  well  as  south. 
Along  Second  Street  particularly  has  there  been  a  move 
ment  north.  For  a  distance  of  two  miles  there  have  been 
streams  formed  in  a  narrow  line  along  the  eastern  side  of 
the  city.  This  is  indicated,  for  example,  by  the  population 
around  Second  and  New  Market  Streets,  details  of  whose 
housing  and  sanitary  conditions  are  given  in  the  study 


54         GENERAL  ASPECTS  OF  THE  POPULATION 

devoted  to  this  subject.1  So,  too,  there  are  clusters  around 
Second  and  Poplar  Streets.  There  is  also  a  settlement  in 
Richmond  in  the  northeastern  portion  of  the  city. 

Jewish  children  attend  the  public  schools  in  large  num 
bers;  no  nationality  down-town  is  more  appreciative  of  the 
public  school  system.  The  result  is  most  gratifying  to  our 
educational  system,  and  to  the  adaptability  and  intellectual 
ability  of  the  Jewish  population.  The  public  night  schools 
are  supplemented  by  private  schools  in  the  teaching  of  the 
immigrant  populations.  Meetings,  lectures,  and  discus 
sions  held  under  the  auspices  of  literary  societies,  bene 
ficial  organizations  and  charitable  institutions  of  one  sort 
or  another,  help  fill  out  the  intellectual  life  of  the  Jewish 
people. 

The  intellectual  ferment  among  the  Russian  Jewish  pop 
ulation  finds  no  counterpart  among  the  other  nationalities. 
The  educational  activities  initiated  or  responded  to  by  them 
are  much  less  prominent. 

A  valuable  element  of  the  religious  life  of  the  orthodox 
portion  of  the  Jewish  community  is  the  synagogue.  Some 
of  the  congregations  worship  in  halls  or  rooms,  others  in 
buildings  of  their  own.2  To  the  list  of  orthodox  Jewish 
congregations  should  be  added  the  Congregation  Israel,  at 
Fifth  and  Pine  Streets,  started  from  without  and  intended 
for  the  less  orthodox  young  people  with  a  service  in  Hebrew 
and  English,  and  an  English  sermon. 

From  the  religious  to  the  social  life  is  not  so  far  a  cry 

1  There  were  1,294  persons  in  the  district  investigated,  of  which  606,  nearly 
half,   were  Jews.     The   total   number  of  families  was   239,  _of   which   100   were 
Jewish.     The   total  number   of   houses   inspected  was   179,   in   73   of   which   the 
occupants  were  predominantly  Jewish. 

2  The  location  of  congregations  is  an  index  of  the  localities  inhabited  by  the 
population.     Starting  with  the  most  northern  among  the  down-town  congrega 
tions  they  may  be  enumerated  as  follows: 

Beth  Israel,  417  Pine  Street. 

B'nai  Zion,  532  Pine  Street. 

Tiferes  Israel  Anshe  Zitomir,  620  Addison  Street. 

B'nai    Jacob,    Fifth    Street,    above   Lombard. 

Kesher  Israel,  421  Lombard  Street. 

B'nai  Abraham  Anshe  Russia,  521  Lombard  Street. 

Agudas  Achim,  514  S.  Third   Street. 

Shomre   Shaboth,    518    S.    Third    Street. 

Emunath   Israel   Oheb   Sholem,   S.    E.    Cor.    Fifth   and   Gaskill   Streets. 

B'nai  Reuben,   Sixth  and  Kater  Streets. 

Ahavas  Chesed  Anshe  Shavel,  322  Bainbridge  Street. 

B'nai  Joseph,   525  Bainbridge  Street. 

Ahavas    Achim    Anshe    Nazin,    754    S.    Third    Street. 

Gomel   Chesed    Shel    Ernes,   314    Catharine    Street. 

Ahawas   Zion,   815   S.    Fourth   Street. 

Independent    Chevra    Kadisho,    408    Christian    Street. 

B'nai  Israel,  922  S.  Fourth  Street. 

Poel  Zodak  Seerus  Israel,   1021    S.   Fifth   Street. 


PHILADELPHIA  55 

as  may  be  thought,  for  with  the  older  people  the  synagogue 
is  tlie  social  centre,  and  many  social  celebrations  still  occur 
in  connection  with  holidays  and  ceremonies.  Social  func 
tions  of  a  public  character  are  balls,  Russian  tea  parties, 
small  dances,  and  musical  entertainments  given  by  one  or 
another  of  the  societies. 

Whatever  cases  of  charity  among  the  Jewish  people  are 
not  taken  care  of  by  any  organization,  are  referred  to  the 
United  Hebrew  Charities.  When  the  immigrant  first  ar 
rives  here,  if  he  needs  immediate  aid  or  advice,  the  agent 
of  the  Association  of  Jewish  Immigrants  directs  him.  The 
Sheltering  Home,  a  Russian  Jewish  institution,  may  keep 
him  for  a  few  days.  Then  the  employment  bureau  of  the 
Hebrew  Charities,  or  the -Baron  de  Hirsch  Fund  is  brought 
into  play,  and  he  is  found  work.  Later,  he,  or  his  family, 
may  require  the  services  of  the  hospital,  the  orphan  asylum, 
or  the  burial  society.  All  are  provided  for.  It  is  still  true 
that  Jews  do  not  become  public  charges  as  the  result  of  de 
pendency. 

There  is  probably  no  nationality  less  prone  to  serious 
crime  than  the  Jewish.  It  is  true,  we  see  evidences  of 
juvenile  delinquency  among  the  immigrant  portion  of  this 
nationality,  and  the  problem  with  reference  to  this  is  grave, 
but  as  the  conditions  which  have  permitted  it  to  develop 
-  are  to  a  considerable  extent  due  to  the  city  environment 
of  the  children,  to  bad  housing  and  street  influences,  to  the 
absence  of  sufficient  play  space,  one  remedy  lies  along  the 
lines  of  improving  these  conditions,  which,  with  the  greater 
adaptability  of  the  parents  and  the  people  of  the  neighbor 
hoods,  as  they  continue  here,  will  modify  the  evils. 

The  Russian  Jewish  population  is,  then,  a  very  impor 
tant  element  of  the  southern  section  of  the  city  in  point  of 
numbers.  Its  social  and  economic  relations  need  not  be 
further  considered  in  this  place.  There  can  be  little  ques 
tion  of  its  activity  and  progress  along  various  lines,  not 
only  as  compared  with  other  nationalities,  in  the  lower  sec 
tion  of  the  city,  but  with  the  population  generally. 


CHICAGO — WEST   SIDE 


f(C)  CHICAGO 

"  Two  families,"  writes  Prof.  Zueblin  in  an  article  on 
"  The  Chicago  Ghetto,"1  "  constituted  the  Jewish  popula 
tion  of  Chicago  in  1843,"  when  the  first  refugees  from  the 
German  persecution  found  their  way  to  Illinois.  In  1848 
a  society  was  chartered  under  the  name  Kehillath  Anshe 
Maariv  (Congregation  of  the  Men  of  the  West).  In  1849 
a  synagogue  was  erected  on  Clark  Street  between  Quincy 
and  Jackson.  Thus  were  laid  the  foundations  of  German 
Jewry,  and,  a  little  later,  of  German  reform  Jewry  of  Chi 
cago.  Russian  and  orthodox  Jewry  of  Chicago  has  a  later 
origin  and  perhaps  a  more  dramatic  history. 

The  few  who  came  before  the  eighties  were  unquestiona 
bly  the  Tighter  element  of  the  Russian  Jewish  communi 
ties —  the  chaff,  so  to  speak,  driven  by  the  playful  winds 
of  adventure  and  gain.  These  early  Russian  Jewish  set 
tlers  were  actuated  not  so  much  by  the  conditions  which 
they  left  behind  as  by  the  prospective  chances  of  the  new 
land.  They  resembled  more  the  stray  adventurers  of  a 
newly  discovered  gold  field  than  an  organic  group  of  early 
settlers  bound  together  by  strong  communal  interests. 

It  is  only  when  the  storm  of  the  so-called  "  May  Regu 
lations  "  of  .1882  (and  again  of  1892)  broke  upon  the 
Russian  Jewish  communities  with  the  vehemence  andr  #'— 
force  of  a  hurricane  that  solid  parts  of  these  communities' 
were  moved  and  carried  off  to  American  shores.  These 
masses  brought  with  them  not  merely  a  dominating  desire 
for  personal  welfare,  but  also  strong  social  ties.  It  was 
these  natural  pre-existing  relations  which  made  social  life 
and  the  organization  of  congenial  groups  possible. 

Recent  additions  to  Chicago  Jewry  come  from  Rouma- 
nia  and  Bessarabian  parts  of  Russia.      The  fact  of  ex-  1 
treme   importance   from  the   American  point  of  view  in 
connection  with  these  earlier  and  later  tides  of  immigra 
tion  is  that  they  all  originate  in  persecution.     They  have 

1  Hull  House  Maps  and  Papers,  p.  91. 

57 


58         GENERAL  ASPECTS  OF  THE  POPULATION 

been  unable  to  get  along  not  because  of  shiftlessness  or 
economic  reverses  due  directly  to  themselves,  but  because 
of  the  action  of  the  government. 

The  present  size  of  Chicago  Jewry,  including  all  ele 
ments,  Portuguese,  German,  Russian,  and  Roumanian,  is 
variously  estimated.  The  best  judges,  however,  agree  on 
60,000  as  being  the  fairest  approximation.  These  are  dis 
tributed  over  the  whole  city  area  forming  colonies  at  each 
of  the  four  corners  —  a  fact  worthy  of  note  in  a  considera 
tion  of  the  Chicago  Ghetto,  which  to  the  minds  of  some 
people  still  suggests  an  iron-barred  fence  encircling  a  lim 
ited  area  wherein  all  Jews  dwell. 

^Chicago  Jewry  is  scattered  all  over  the  South  Side  as 
far  as  Sixty-third  Street,  on  the  East  and  North-East  Side 
up  to  the  Lake,  the  North- West  Side,  where  it  numbers 
nearly  15,000,  and  finally  the  West  Side  where  there  are 
at  least  30,000  Jews,  mostly  Russian  and  Polish. 

A  more  exact  idea  of  the  location  of  the  various  Jewish 
centres  in  Chicago  may  be  had  by  designating  the  places 
of  our  foremost  synagogues:  The  Sinai  Temple  on  Twen 
tieth  Street  and  Indiana  Avenue;  the  Temple  Kehillath 
Anshe  Maariv  on  Thirty-third  Street  and  Indiana  Avenue 
and  many  others  on  the  South  Side;  the  Temple  of  the 
North  Side ;  Hebrew  Congregation,  on  La  Salle  Avenue 
and  Goethe  Street  on  the  North  Side;  the  synagogue  of 
Anshe  Kenesseth  Israel  on  Clinton  and  Judd  Streets,  and 
a  host  of  others  on  the  West  Side. 

It  is  the  West  Side  of  Chicago  that  is  commonly  called 
the  Chicago  Ghetto.  In  fact  the  city  is  supposed  to  have 
two  Ghettos,  a  lesser  and  a  greater.  The  lesser  "  is  found 
in  the  Seventh  Ward  bounded  by  Twelfth,  Halsted,  Fif 
teenth  Streets  and  Steward  Avenue,  where  ninety  per  cent, 
of  the  population  are  Jews.  The  greater  Ghetto,  including 
an  area  of  about  a  square  mile,  comprises  parts  of  the 
Nineteenth,  Seventh  and  Eighth  Wards,  and  is  bounded 
by  Polk  Street  on  the  North,  Blue  Island  Avenue  on  the 
west,  Fifteenth  Street  on  the  south,  and  Steward  Avenue 
on  the  east."  Roughly  speaking,  this  is  almost  co-extensive 
with  the  "  slum  district  "  as  defined  in  the  Seventh  Special 
Report  of  the  Commissioner  of  Labor  on  the  Slums  of 
Great  Cities.  It  is  this  Ghetto,  then,  in  the  slum  of  a 
great  city,  which  is  the  home  of  the  great  majority  of 
Chicago  Jews.  How  it  looks  to  the  "  outsider  "  may  best 


CHICAGO  59 

be  judged  from  the  following  description  of  Prof.  Zueb- 
lin:1 

"  The  physical  characteristics  of  the  Ghetto  do  not  dif 
fer  materially  from  the  surrounding  districts.  The  streets 
may  be  a  trifle  narrower ;  the  alleys  are  no  filthier.  There 
is  only  one  saloon  to  ten  in  the  other  districts,  but  the 
screens,  side  doors,  and  loafers  are  of  the  ubiquitous  type; 
the  theatre  bills  a  higher  grade  of  performance  than  other 
cheap  theatres,  but  checks  are  given  between  the  acts, 
whose  users  find  their  way  to  the  bar  beneath.  The  dry 
goods  stores  have  the  same  '  cheap  and  nasty  '  goods  within 
which  may  be  found  elsewhere.  The  race  differences  are 
subtle;  they  are  not  too  apparent  to  the  casual  observer. 
It  is  the  religious  distinction. -which  every  one  notices,  the 
synagogues,  the  Talmud  schools,  the  '  kosher  '  signs  on 
the  meat  markets.  Among  the  dwelling-houses  of  the 
Ghetto  are  found  the  three  types  which  curse  the  Chicago 
workingman, —  the  small  low,  one  or  two  story,  * '  pioneer  ' ' 
wooden  shanty,  erected  probably  before  the  street  was 
graded,  and  hence  several  feet  below  the  street  level ;  the 
brick  tenement  of  three  or  four  stories,  with  insufficient 
light,  bad  drainage,  no  bath,  built  to  obtain  the  highest 
possible  rent  for  the  smallest  possible  cubic  space ;  and  the 
third  type,  the  deadly  rear  tenement  with  no  light  in  front, 
and  with  the  frightful  odors  of  the  dirty  alley  in  the  rear, 
too  often  the  workshop  of  the  '  sweater  '  as  well  as  the 
home  of  an  excessive  population.  On  the  narrow  pave 
ment  of  the  narrow  street  in  front  is  found  the  omnipres 
ent  garbage-box,  with  full  measure,  pressed  down  and 
running  over.  In  all  but  the  severest  weather,  the  streets 
swarm  with  children  day  and  night.  On  bright  days, 
groups  of  adults  join  the  multitude,  especially  on  Saturday 
and  Sunday,  or  on  Jewish  holidays.  A  morning  walk  im 
presses  one  with  the  density  of  the  population,  but  an 
evening  visit  reveals  a  hive." 

One  thing  which  excites  the  wonder  of  the  investigator 
is  the  vitality  of  the  Jew  in  spite  of  his  living  under  the 
double  curse  of  slum  and  Ghetto.  The  Seventh  contains 
the  largest  Jewish  population  and  the  lowest  death  rate.2 
The  same  remarkable  vitality  as  is  shown  by  the  low  death- 
rate  in  the  ward  containing  a  large  Jewish  population  is 
observed  in  other  Jewish  centres,  and  this  vitality,  let  it  be 

1  Hull  House  Maps  and  Papers,  p.   94. 
-Ibid.,   p.   96. 


60         GENERAL  ASPECTS  OF  THE  POPULATION 

remembered,  is  not  only  "  purely  physical."  Hand  in 
hand  with  the  energy  of  the  body  goes  an  energy  of  mind 
which  is  equally  challenging, —  as  a  description  of  the 
various  forms  of  industrial  and  social  activities  plainly 
shows. 

Traditionally  the  Jew  is  a  tradesman.  But  in  this  coun 
try,  at  least,  the  Jew's  range  of  industrial  activities  has 
been  wonderfully  extended.  There  are  not  only  merchants 
and  manufacturers,  not  only  the  familiar  tailors  and  cigar 
makers,  but  great  and  ever  growing  numbers  of  brick 
layers,  carpenters,  painters,  decorators,  and  machinists, 
and,  in  some  instances,  thoroughly  trained  engineers,  grad 
uates  of  prominent  technical  schools.  The  Lewis  Institute 
and  Armour  Institute  have  helped  not  a  little  in  opening 
up  these  particular  avenues  of  useful  knowledge  to  the 
Jewish  youth.  But  the  institution  which  is  especially 
,  responsible  for  a  high  standard  of  industrial  education  is 
;the  Jewish  Training  School,  situated  in  the  very  heart  of 
the  Ghetto. 

The  number  of  clubs  of  a  more  social  character  indicate 
a  welcome  departure  from  the  old  mode  of  self-centred 
living  among  the  Jews.  Of  all  the  Jewish  clubs  of  Chicago 
to-day,  the  Standard  is  the  oldest,  most  prominent  and 
most  influential.  It  was  organized  in  1869.  The  Lakeside 
is  next  in  prestige,  and  is  but  fifteen  years  younger.  These 
and  the  Unity  Club  are  all  situated  on  the  South  Side. 
The  West  Side  also  has  a  number  of  very  fine  old  club 
rooms,  as  the  West  Chicago  Club,  the  Lessing  Club  House, 
the  Lasalle  Club.  The  last  two  are  especially  responsible 
for  the  educational  leaven  on  the  West  Side.  Other  edu 
cational  agencies  are  Hull  House,  the  evening  schools,  the 
Jewish  press,  the  Jewish  theatres,  and  the  like.  The  in 
tense  intellectual  life  which  the  Jew  leads  in  the  midst  of 
all  these  institutions  is  only  further  proof  of  his  enormous 
vitality.  The  true  explanation  of  this  vitality  may  now  be 
suggested :  Is  it  not  likely  that  the  Jew  possesses  qualities 
..which  are  too  fine  for  the  slum  and  Ghetto  soil  in  which 
they  are  planted,  the  result  being  a  redoubling  of  energy 
,to  overcome  a  particularly  nasty  environment?  That  he 
r$-Jhas  not  succumbed  to  the  distressing  environment  is  still 
\a  cause  for  wonder. 


I  1 

« 


Ill 

PHILANTHROPY 


PHILANTHROPE 

(A)  NEW  YORK 

On  April  26,  1655,  the  board  of  directors  of  the  Dutch 
West  India  Company  wrote  to  Governor  Stuyvesant  as 
follows:  "  After  many  consultations,  we  have  decided 
and  resolved  upon  a  certain  petition  made  by  said  Portu 
guese  Jews,  that  they  shall  have  permission  to  sell  and 
to  trade  in  New  Netherland  and  to  live  and  remain  there, 
provided  the  poor  among  them  shall  not  'become  a  burden 
to  the  company,  or  to  the  community,  but  be  supported  by 
their  own  nation." 

The  records  of  the  Department  of  Charities  of  the  city 
of  New  York  now  show  that  (of  a  Jewish  population  ap 
proximating  700,000  in  Greater  New  York)  in  the  alms- 
house  on  Blackwell's  Island  there  are  twenty-six  pauper 
Jews,  of  whom  the  majority  were  blind,  idiotic  or  pos 
sessed  of  some  peculiar  defect  which  prevented  admission 
to  existing  Jewish  charitable  institutions. 

What  is  true  of  New  York  Jews  is  true  of  their  co 
religionists  everywhere.  The  Jew  has  always  cared  for 
his  own  poor. 

In  our  modern  day,  under  more  favorable  conditions 
and  auspices,  the  Jew  has,  to  some  extent,  reverted  to  the 
non-sectarian  idea  in  his  philanthropies.  Hospitals,  as  a 
rule,  supported  and  endowed  by  Jews,  throw  open  their 
doors  to  sufferers  irrespective  of  creed,  color  or  nationality. 
Other  instances  could  be  cited  of  charities,  not  medical,  or 
ganized  along  similar  lines.  Jewish  agencies,  giving  ma 
terial  relief,  or  to  use  a  better  term,  those  which  care  for 
the  needy  in  their  own  homes,  in  the  main  confine  their 
work  to  beneficiaries  of  their  faith,  without,  however,  mak 
ing  any  rigid  distinction.  On  the  other  hand,  the  trend 
of  Jewish  charity  has  been  in  the  direction  of  caring  for 
the  Jewish  poor,  solely  through  Jewish  agencies,  and  with 
out  the  intervention  or  co-operation  of  other  sectarian  or 
non-sectarian  societies  or  institutions.  Such  a  condition 

62 


NEW  YORK 


63 


of  affairs  is  the  resultant  of  the  compulsion  of  the  centuries. 
The  task  which  was  at  one  time  assumed  of  necessity  has 
to-day  become  a  proud  duty.  What  in  Stuyvesant's  day 
was  obligatory  and  mandatory  is  to-day  accepted  as  a  vol 
untary  responsibility. 

If  the  impoverished  Jew  requires  the  interference  of  his 
wealthier  co-religionist,  it  is  because  the  latter  is  better 
able  to  understand  his  needs  and  has  a  peculiar,  specialized 
knowledge  of  a  peculiar  class  of  individuals.  Were  it  pos 
sible  for  public  charities  or  for  non-sectarian  private  chari 
ties  to  grasp  the  fundamentals  of  Jewish  poverty,  to  ob 
tain  that  keen  insight  into  the  modes  of  living  and  thought 
of  a  heterogeneous  people  whose  common  meeting-point  is 
their  religion,  an  insight  so  necessary  to  bring  the  proper 
forms  of  relief  into  play,  there  is  no  reason  why  the  poor 
Jew  should  not  be  the  recipient  of  the  charitable  impulse  of 
the  entire  community.  The  Jew's  religion  per  se  is  not  a 
factor  in  the  solution  of  his  physical  needs.  It  is  charac 
teristic  of  his  history  that  the  greater  his  poverty  and 
distress,  the  greater  has  been  his  religiosity  and  his  stead 
fastness  to  his  ethical  and  religious  convictions. 

The  problem  of  the  Jewish  charitable  societies  of  the 
United  States  to-day  is  the  problem  of  the  care  of  the 
immigrant.  As  such,  it  passes  beyond  merely  local  lines. 
In  some  of  its  manifestations  it  is  national  in  character 
and  in  a  few  it  has  an  international  significance.  The  fact 
that  the  large  bulk  of  the  needy  Jews  in  the  United  States 
reside  in  New  York  is  accidental,  and  concerns  the  Jews  of 
Denver  and  San  Francisco  equally  with  those  of  the  East 
ern  seaboard  cities.  In  so  far  the  problem  is  a  national 
one.  Moreover,  to  deal  intelligently  with  the  question  re 
quires  a  knowledge  of  the  immigrant's  antecedents,  the 
impelling  motive  which  brought  him  to  the  United  States, 
and  an  acquaintance  with  his  previous  environment.  And 
here  the  international  phase  of  the  question  comes  in. 

Roughly  speaking,  it  may  be  said  that  there  are  no  Amer 
ican-born  Jewish  poor.  Of  the  10,334  families  who  applied 
for"~asslstance  to  the  United  Hebrew  Charities  of  New  York 
during  its  last  fiscal  year,  2  per  cent,  were  born  in  the 
United  States.  And  of  these  the  majority  of  heads  of 
families  were  of  the  first  generation.  Jewish  dependents 
who  have  an  ancestry  in  the  United  States  of  more  than 
two  generations  are  practically  unknown.  Nor  can  it  be 
stated  that  there  have  ever  been  enough  native-born  de- 


64  PHILANTHEOPY 

pendent  Jews  to  make  an  issue,  since  the  Stuyvesant  epi 
sode.  In  the  report  of  the  president  of  the  above  society 
for  the  year  1881,  the  statement  is  made  that  during  no 
time  since  the  formation  of  the  society  had  there  been 
less  want  than  during  the  first  six  months  of  the  fiscal 
year  just  ended.  It  must  have  been  gratifying  for  those 
present  at  the  meeting  to  learn  that  after  all  the  poor  in 
the  city  had  been  given  adequate  relief,  there  was  still 
in  the  society's  treasury  a  comfortable  balance  of  over 
$14,000.  During  the  following  year,  so  large  were  the 
receipts  of  the  society  and  so  small  the  demands  of  the 
regular  recipients,  that  the  balance  in  the  treasury  at  the 
end  of  the  year  had  swelled  to  nearly  $19,000. 

In  the  year  1881  began  that  great  wave  of  emigration 
from  eastern  Europe,  the  end  of  which  is  not  yet.  Driven 
by  a  relentless  persecution,  which  endangered  not  only  their 
homes  but  frequently  their  lives,  thousands  of  Jews  were 
compelled  to  flee  and  to  seek  new  residence  on  these  shores. 
The  Russio-Jewish  committee  which  originally  undertook 
the  work  of  caring  for  these  immigrants  turned  it  over 
very  shortly  to  the  Hebrew  Emigrant  Aid  Society,  which 
came  into  existence  in  December,  1881.  In  one  year  this 
society  spent  $250,000,  $50,000  less  than  had  been  spent  by 
the  United  Hebrew  Charities  of  New  York  in  the  seven 
years  of  its  existence.  In  the  first  and  only  annual  report  of 
the  Emigrant  Aid  Society,  its  president  outlined  as  tersely 
as  possible  the  efforts  that  had  been  made  to  provide  homes 
and  occupations  for  the  thousands  of  fleeing  exiles  who 
reached  these  shores  during  the  momentous  summer  of 
1882.  In  the  month  of  July  the  committee  spent  for  board 
and  lodging  alone  over  $11,700.  Of  the  herculean  efforts 
of  the  members  of  the  committee,  of  the  sacrifices  of  time 
and  money,  the  report  in  its  modesty  makes  but  scant  men 
tion.  The  full  history  of  the  Emigrant  Aid  Society;  is  yet 
to  be  written. 

"With  the  gradual  falling  off.  in  immigration,  the  Emi 
grant  Aid  Society  went  out  of  existence,  and  the  care  of  the 
needy  emigrants  who  remained  in  New  York  and  who 
became  impoverished  after  residence,  reverted  to  the  United 
Hebrew  Charities.  In  1885  immigration  again  began  to 
grow  heavier  and  continued  in  such  numbers  that  in  the 
following  five  years  over  120,000  immigrants  arrived  at 
Castle  Garden.  In  1890  the  immigration  reached  the  fig- 


NEW  YORK  65 

ares  32,321,  the  largest  number  ever  recorded  up  to  that 
time. 

With'  all  that  had  been  done,  the  real  work  of  the  chari 
ties  was  but  to  begin.  In  1891  the  religious  persecution 
of  the  Russian  Jews  reached  a  climax.  In  the  year  ending 
Sejprteiiiber  30,  62,574  immigrants  arrived  at  New  York,  of 
whom  nearly  40,000  arrived  between  June  and  September. 
The  entire  charitable  effort  of  the  New  York  Jewish  com 
munity  was  for  the  time  directed  out  of  the  ordinary  chan 
nels  and  applied  to  the  monumental  question  of  caring  for 
the  arriving  Russian  Jews.  The  Baron  de  Hirsch  Fund, 
instead  of  utilizing  its  income  for  its  educational  work,  ap 
propriated  over  $67,000  to  the  United  Hebrew  Charities 
to  assist  in  the  work  of  the  immigration  bureau.  Over 
$175,000  was  spent  by  the  society  during  this  year.  In 
September  of  1891  it  became  apparent  that  there  would 
be  no  cessation  to  the  immigration  and  that  much  larger 
funds  would  be  necessary  to  give  anything  like  adequate 
assistance  to  the  unfortunates  who  were  arriving  at  the 
t-ate  of  2,000  per  week.  The  enthusiasm  which  was  aroused 
at  a  banquet  tendered  to  the  late  Jesse  Seligman  was  util 
ized  in  establishing  the  "  Russian  Transportation  Fund," 
which  added  over  $90,000  to  the  revenues  of  the  United 
Hebrew  Charities  and  which  was  given  by  citizens  of  New 
York,  irrespective  of  creed.  Later  in  the  year,  a  standing 
committee  of  the  society,  known  as  the  Central  Russian 
Refugees  Committee,  was  organized  and  was  made  up  of 
representatives  of  the  Baron  de  Hirsch  Fund,  the  Russian 
Transportation  Fund,  the  United  Hebrew  Charities,  and 
the  American  Committee  for  Ameliorating  the  Condition 
of  the  Russian  Exiles.  The  last  committee  was  organized 
to  secure  the  co-operation  of  relief  societies  in  other  cities, 
in  order  that  the  various  European  societies  who  were  as 
sisting  the  persecuted  Russians  to  emigrate  should  thor 
oughly  understand  the  attitude  of  the  New  York  organi 
zation. 

The  year,  October,  1891,  to  September,  1892,  will  ever 
be  a  memora^fe  une~  m  the  history  of  Russian  emigration 
and  of  Jewish  philanthropy;  52,134  immigrants  arrived 
at  the  Barge  office  during  that  period.  The  treasurer  of 
the  United  Hebrew  Charities  paid  out  the  enormous  sum 
of  $321,311.05,  of  which  $145,200  was  spent  by  the  Russian 
Refugees  Committee  between  February  and  September. 
Like  the  Hebrew  Emigrant  Aid  Society,  the  history  of  the 


66  PHILANTHEOPT 

Central  Russian  Refugees  Committee  is  still  to  be  written. 
At  present  it  is  included  in  the  bald  statement  of  a  treas 
urer's  report.  Should  it  ever  be  published,  it  will  tell  a 
tale  of  devotion,  of  altruistic  effort,  of  sacrifice,  of  noble 
charitable  impulse  unparalleled  in  the  history  of  American 
Judaism. 

Since  the  year  1881,  fully  750,000  Jewish  immigrants 
have  arrived  at  the  port  of  New  York  alone.  Of  these  the 
bulk  comprise  refugees  from  Russian  and  Roumanian  per 
secution,  Austrians,  and  Galicians.  They  came  from  coun 
tries  in  which  many  of  them  lived  under  conditions  of 
appalling  poverty.  The  records  of  the  immigration  bu 
reau  show  that  in  material  wealth,  these  immigrants  are 
below  the  average  of  immigrants  from  other  European 
countries.  Due  to  their  previous  condition,  a  percentage 
is  illiterate.  On  the  other  hand,  the  number  of  skilled 
'•/a'rtisans  and  craftsmen  is  so  large  as  to  be  distinctly  no- 
-  ticeable.  From  the  standpoint  of  dependency,  it  will  be 
of  interest  to  study  to  what  extent  this  large  body  of  im 
migrants  has  added  to  the  dependent  and  delinquent  classes 
of  the  communities  in  the  United  States.  The  only  figures 
that  are  at  hand  are  those  of  New  York,  which  are  higher 
than  would  be  found  in  other  cities  and  towns  for  reasons 
that  are  obvious. 

In  December,  1899,  the  writer  made  a  study  of  1,000 
families  who  had  originally  applied  to  the  United  Hebrew 
Charities  for  assistance  in  October,  1894.  Of  these  1,000 
applicants  it  was  found  that  602  had  not  applied  for  as 
sistance  after  December,  1894.  Of  the  remainder,  67  fam 
ilies  were  dependent  on  the  society  to  a  greater  or  lesser 
extent  in  January,  1899.  More  detailed  investigation  dis 
closed  the  fact  that  nearly  all  .of  these  67  applicants  were 
made  up  of  families  where  the  wage-earner  had  died,  leav 
ing  a  widow  with  small  children,  or  of  respectable  aged 
and  infirm  couples  unable  to  be  fully  self-supporting,  or  of 
families  in  which  the  wage-earner  had  become  incapaciated 
through  illness.  In  other  words,  after  five  years  over  93 
per  cent,  of  the  cases  studied  were  independent  of  chari 
table  interference.  In  October,  1904,  it  was  found  that 
only  23  of  the  1,000  families  above  mentioned  were  apply 
ing  to  the  society  for  assistance. 

While  the  above  study  was  limited  in  its  scope,  and  while 
the  deduction  which  can  be  drawn  from  it  must  be  ac 
cepted  with  reserve,  it  is  nevertheless  typical  of 


NEW  TOEK  67 

charitable  conditions.  The  marked  feature  in  the  care  of 
the  Jewish  poor  in  the  United  States  is  the  almost  entire 
absence  of  the  so-called  pauper  element.  Even  the  twenty- 
three  families  above  mentioned  cannot  be  included  in  this 
category.  Widowhood  is  the  resultant  of  purely  natural 
conditions,  and  when  it  afflicts  the  poor  mother  with  a  fam 
ily,  it  frequently  produces  a  condition  of  dependence  which 
has  in  it  no  characteristics  of  demoralization.  The  bright 
est  and  most  hopeful  chapter  in  the  history  of  Jewish 
charity  is  the  avidity  and  eagerness  with  which  its  bene 
ficiaries,  bereft  of  the  main  wage-earner,  become  self-sup 
porting  and  independent  as  soon  as  the  children  are  old 
enough  to  contribute  to  the  family  income. 

If  there  is  one  cause  more  than  another  leading  up  to 
this  condition,  it  is  the  absence  of  the  drink  evil  among 
Jews.  The  instances  in  which  drunkenness  lies  at  the  bot 
tom  of  Jewish  dependency  are  so  infrequent  that  they  may 
be  ignored.  The  matron  of  the  police  station  in  Browns 
ville,  an  outlying  district  of  Brooklyn,  recently  stated  that  s 
in  her  12  years'  experience,  she  could  not  recall  a  single 
instance  of  a  Jewish  woman  having  been  arrested  for 
drunkenness.  Combined  with  the  absence  of  this  vice, 
there  are  other  virtues  engrafted  on  the  Jew  for  centuries, 
all  of  which  tend  to  the  preservation  of  his  self-respect  and 
nis  self-esteem.  Among  these  are  the  love  of  home,  the 
inherent  desire  to  preserve  the  purity  of  the  family,  and 
the  remarkable  eagerness  which  he  shows  for  education  and 
self-improvement.  Poverty  with  the  Jew  does  not  spell 
degeneracy.  The  history  of  the  Jewish  charities  in  the 
United  States  demonstrates  nothing  more  forcibly  than 
that  the  Jewish  immigrant,  be  he  German,  Russian,  Rou-  ^  ^ 
manian,  or  Galician,  readily  adapts  himself  to  his  American 
environment,  easily  assimilates  the  customs  and  language  of 
his  adopted  country,  and  even  though  he  may  temporarily 
require  assistance,  rapidly  becomes  independent  of  chari 
table  interference.  The  immigrant  Jew  is  frequently  pov-i  |\i 
erty-stricken ;  he  is  rarely  a  pauper,  in  the  sense  in  which 
the  word  is  most  commonly  used.  He  is  not  found  in  they 
besotted,  degenerate,  hopeless  mass  of  humanity  constitut 
ing  the  flotsam  and  jetsam  of  society,  the  product  of  gen 
erations  of  vice,  crime,  and  debauchery,  which  makes  up  the 
scum  of  our  present  civilization.  Given  the  opportunity 
and  the  proper  surroundings,  the  immigrant  Jew  will  be^ 
come  a  goocl  addition  to  the  body  politic,  not  a  menace. 


-V  \ 


68  PHILANTHROPY 

The  work  of  the  United  Hebrew  Charities  of  New  York 
is  typical  of  similar  Jewish  organizations  throughout  the 
United  States.  Its  report  for  the  fiscal  year  ending  Sep 
tember  30,  1904,  shows  that  10,334  individuals  and  families 
applied  for  assistance.  Of  these  5,525  had  applied  for  the 
first  time.  The  society  grants  relief  in  kind,  including 
groceries,  clothing,  shoes,  furniture,  etc.  There  were  dis 
tributed  last  year  57,535  garments  and  pieces  of  furniture. 
The  annual  disbursements  for  material  relief  alone  amount 
to  over  $175,000.  Ever  since  its  organization  thirty  years 
ago,  the  society  has  endeavored  to  uphold  the  principles  of 
organized  charity.  In  some  instances  it  has  antedated  the 
charity  organization  societies  themselves.  We  need  but 
mention  the  giving  of  relief  in  amounts  adequate  to  make 
the  recipient  independent  of  further  intervention  on  the 
part  of  the  relief -giving  agency,  and  the  establishment  of  a 
graded,  carefully  regulated  and  supervised  system  of  pen 
sions  covering  if  necesssary  a  long  period  of  years.  As  a 
rule,  these  pensions  are  given  only  to  families  where  the 
wage-earner  has  died,  and  where,  unless  such  provision 
were  made,  no  recourse  would  be  left,  except  the  breaking 
up  of  the  family  and  the  commitment  of  the  children  to 
orphanages  and  similar  institutions.  To  obviate  the  neces 
sity  of  such  commitment,  the  United  Hebrew  Charities 
disburses  annually  over  $41,000  in  pensions.  In  the  his 
tory  of  the  society  there  is  no  form  of  relief  which  shows 
such  good  returns  for  the  investment  made.  'Jewish  fam 
ilies  so  supported  do  not  become  pauperized;  the  subsidy 
which  is  granted  enables  the  surviving  parent  to  devote  her 
time  to  the  proper  rearing  of  her  children  so  that  they 
may  become  useful  and  intelligent  citizens. 

A  word  may  be  said  here  on  the  question  of  adequate 
relief.  In  the  revulsion  which  accompanied  the  indiscrim 
inate  almsgiving  of  earlier  decades,  the  so-called  organ 
ized  charities  which  resulted  therefrom  frequently  went 
to  the  other  extreme  and  withheld  material  relief  in  the 
fear  of  its  baneful  effect  on  the  recipient.  Nothing  is  more 
characteristic  of  our  present-day  charities  than  the  gradual 
return  to  the  sound  doctrine  that  material  relief  is  not 
the  end  desired,  but  merely  a  means  to  the  end,  and  that 
it  must  be  used,  if  necessary,  equally  with  other  forms  of  re 
lief,  and  must  be  given  adequately  if  at  all.  Jewish  char 
ity  has  always  upheld  this  belief. 

Of  all  the  problems  which  confront  the  average  charity 


NEW  YOEK  69 

organization,  possibly  the  most  perplexing  is  the  one  of  the 
family  in  which  the  mother  must  be  the  wage-earner.  The 
kindergarten  and  the  day  nursery  have  by  no  means  solved 
the  problem.  They  are  at  best  but  makeshifts  in  an  at 
tempt  to  help  a  situation  which  has  its  root  in  economic  and 
industrial  conditions.  Again,  the  factory  removes  the 
mother  from  her  sphere  of  influence  over  her  children,  and 
opens  opportunity  for  the  growth  of  incorrigibility  and 
waywardness  on  the  part  of  the  latter.  In  the  hope  of 
partially  overcoming  this  difficulty,  the  United  Hebrew 
Charities  has  for  some  years  conducted  a  work-room  for 
unskilled  women  in  which  the  latter  are  taught  various 
needle  industries,  that  they  may  eventually  be  sufficiently 
accomplished  to  work  in  their  own  homes,  and  in  this  fash 
ion  supplement  the  family  income.  The  amount  of  such 
work  that  can  be  found  is  limited.  More  and  more,  daily, 
the  factory  is  competing  with  home  industry  to  the  exclu 
sion  of  the  latter.  A  study  has  shown  that  work  could 
be  obtained  for  women  to  do  at  home  in  industries  such  as 
silk-belt  making,  men's  and  women's  neckwear,  garters  and 
hose  supporters,  paper  boxes,  slip  covers  for  the  furniture 
trade,  over-gaiters  and  leggings,  dressing  sacques,  hats  and 
caps,  flowers  and  feathers,  beaded  purses  and  other  bead- 
work,  dress  shields,  incandescent  light  mantles,  embroidery 
and  art  embroidery,  passementerie  work,  bibs,  knit  goods, 
etc. 

The  sisterhoods  in  various  districts  co-operate  with  the 
United  Hebrew  Charities.  They  give  material  relief,  have 
developed  day  nurseries,  kindergartens,  clubs  and  classes 
of  various  kinds,  employment  bureaus,  mothers'  meetings, 
and  in  fact  have  become  social  centres  for  the  poor  of 
their  neighborhoods.  Since  a  large  percentage  of  the  dis 
tress  which  is  met  with  is  occasioned  by  illness,  medical 
relief  of  all  kinds  has  been  organized.  Each  district  as  a 
rule  has  its  physician  and  its  nurse,  and  where  these  are 
not  at  hand,  co-operation  has  been  effected  with  other  or 
ganizations  specially  equipped  for  such  work.  A  very  re 
cent  development  has  been  the  inauguration  of  district  or 
branch  offices  of  the  United  Hebrew  Charities  located  on 
the  East  Side  of  New  York  in  the  very  heart  of  the  con 
gested  centres.  In  itself  the  district  office  is  no  novelty. 
The  value,  however,  of  the  new  plan  is  due  to  the  fact 
that  the  Boards  of  Directors  of  these  district  organizations 
are  made  up  entirely  of  residents  of  the  neighborhood  and 


70  PHILANTHEOPT 

represent  the  descendants  of  or  the  original  immigrants 
who  have  come  from  Russia,  Roumania,  or  Galicia  since 
1881.  The  value  of  such  co-operation  cannot  be  overesti 
mated.  The  knowledge  possessed  by  intelligent  men  and 
women  who  are  thoroughly  in  touch  with  the  traditions, 
customs  and  ambitions  of  the  immigrants  who  have  been 
coming  here  and  who  still  are  coming  is  much  more  desir 
able  in  determining  the  right  kind  of  assistance  to  be  given 
than  information  obtained  where  there  is  lack  of  such 
knowledge. 

In  very  recent  years,  the  spread  of  tuberculosis  among 
Jews  has  merited  the  earnest  attention  of  the  society,  and 
among  its  other  activities  it  has  been  a  pioneer  in  devel 
oping  a  systematic  plan  for  caring  for  such  tuberculosis 
applicants  in  their  own  homes,  for  whom  no  provision  could 
be  made  in  existing  sanatoria.  The  campaign  thus  begun 
has  been  not  only  charitable,  but  social.  Not  only  have 
these  unfortunates  been  given  food,  nourishment  and  medi 
cal  care  to  aid  them  towards  recovery,  but  in  addition 
thereto,  instruction  has  been  given  them  in  the  rudiments 
of  sanitation,  and  in  the  prevention  of  infection.  It  is 
significant  that  the  work  of  the  United  Hebrew  Charities 
in  this  field  has  been  followed  to  some  extent  by  the  recent 
ly  organized  Committee  on  Tuberculosis  of  the  Charity  Or 
ganization  Society. 

The  name  "  United  Hebrew  Charities  "  as  applied  to 
the  New  York  organization  is  somewhat  of  a  misnomer, 
since  it  does  not  include  all  Jewish  charitable  agencies  in 
the  city  of  New  York.  It  would  be  more  proper  to  speak  of 
it  as  the  consolidation  of  all  the  purely  relief  societies  which 
existed  in  New  York  prior  to  1874.  Aside  from  these,  there 
are  to-day  hospitals,  orphanages,  technical  schools  for  boys 
and  girls,  trade  schools,  day  nurseries  and  kindergartens, 
guilds  for  crippled  children,  burial  societies,  loan  societies, 
societies  for  maternity  relief,  and  a  goodly  number  of 
smaller  organizations  which  have  been  founded  by  the 
immigrants  of  the  last  twenty  years.  It  is  estimated  that 
there  are  over  one  thousand  Jewish  organizations  and  so 
cieties  in  the  city  of  New  York  to-day,  whose  activities  to 
a  greater  or  lesser  extent  are  directed  along  philanthropic 
lines.  Practically  all  of  the  larger  organizations,  such  as 
the  hospitals,  work  in  co-operation  with  the  United  Hebrew 
Charities. 

It  is  an  old  but  true  saying  that  the  "  Poor  help  the 


NEW  TOEK  71 

poor."  Nowhere  is  this  more  forcibly  illustrated  than  in 
the  New  York  Ghetto.  It  is  a  truth  almost  axiomatic 
among  charity  workers  that  the  poor  man  uses  the  larger 
charitable  institutions  at  his  command  only  after  he  has  ex 
hausted  the  kindness  and  generosity  of  his  neighbors.  For 
this  reason,  it  is  difficult  to  approximate  the  amount  of 
philanthropic  effort  that  the  more  prosperous  Russian  Jew 
is  making  for  his  less  fortunate  brethren.  Of  the  Jewish 
congregations  at  present  in  New  York  City  the  majority  are 
chevras  (societies)  of  Russian  origin  which  bury  the  dead 
and,  where  possible,  give  other  forms  of  relief.  Besides 
these,  there  are  a  number  of  benefit  societies  and  benevolent 
societies  which  endeavor  to  assist  their  members  in  need. 
Three  societies,  however,  require  more  extended  mention 
owing  to  the  character  of  work  which  they  are  doing. 
These  are  the  Gemilath  Chassodim  Society,  the  Beth  Israel 
Hospital,  and  the  Chesed  Shel  Emeth. 

The  Gemilath  Chassodim  has  been  in  existence  since 
1892.  Its  object  is  to  loan  money  without  interest  in  sums 
from  $5  to  $50  to  be  paid  off  in  weekly  installments  to  any 
deserving  individual  who  can  find  a  sponsor,  or  in  other 
words,  who  can  find  a  responsible  endorser  for  his  note. 
When  the  society  was  organized  it  had  a  net  capital  of 
eighty  dollars.  The  society  has  now  a  capital  of  $74,184.32, 
according  to  its  twelfth  annual  report  ending  December  31, 
1903,  and  turned  over  its  capital  over  four  times  during 
the  year,  loaning  $320,740  to  13,143  persons.  Of  the  total 
amount  loaned,  ninety-seven  per  cent,  was  repaid  by  the 
borrowers.  The  value  of  such  a  society  in  the  direction  of 
preventive  charity  can  hardly  be  estimated.  In  the  lan 
guage  of  one  of  the  speakers  at  an  annual  meeting,  the 
Gemilath  Chassodim  may  be  likened  to  a  dispensary  and 
the  United  Hebrew  Charities  to  a  hospital.  In  the  former, 
mild  cases  not  yet  requiring  heroic  surgical  or  medical  in 
terference  may  receive  attention.  Here,  however,  the  sim 
ile  ends.  The  dispensary  is  intended  essentially  for  the 
poor  man  who  has  no  other  means  of  receiving  medical  as 
sistance.  The  Free  Loan  Association,  by  the  requirements 
of  its  constitution,  bars  the  worthy  poor  man  who  cannot 
find  endorsers  and  compels  him  to  apply  to  the  United  He 
brew  Charities  for  the  relief  which  he  needs. 

The  Beth  Israel  Hospital  Association  was  incorporated 
in  1890  and  at  present  has  thirty  beds,  all  of  which  are 
free.  The  hospital  itself  is  situated  on  Jefferson  Street, 


72  PHILANTHROPY 

in  the  heart  of  the  congested  district.  It  occupies  an  old 
mansion  which  has  been  remodeled  as  far  as  possible  to 
meet  the  demands  of  the  hospital.  So  progressive  have  the 
officers  been  that  the  corner-stone  of  a  new  hospital,  to 
cost  in  the  neighborhood  of  $200,000,  has  been  laid.  This 
institution  indicates  very  strongly  the  rapid  strides  that 
are  being  made  by  Russian  Jews  to  provide  their  poor  with 
proper  facilities  for  relief.  The  Beth  Israel  Hospital  was 
organized  by  the  Russian  Jewish  community  and  has  prac 
tically  been  sustained  by  it. 

The  Agudath  Achim  Chessed  Shel  Emeth  has  been  in 
existence  for  sixteen  years.  It  maintains  at  present  two 
cemeteries,  and  is  prepared  to  give  free  burial  whenever 
the  family  of  the  deceased  are  not  in  a  position  to  pay 
therefor.  It  has  buried  over  twelve  thousand  persons. 

It  is  not  within  the  province  of  this  paper  to  discuss  in 
detail  the  various  Jewish  charitable  institutions  which 
New  York  possesses.  Such  organizations  as  the  Mount 
Sinai  Hospital,  the  Home  for  the  Aged,  the  orphan  asylums, 
and  the  various  institutions  under  the  De  Hirsch  founda 
tions,  are  too  well  known  to  require  comment  here.  Nor  do 
they  differ  in  the  main  from  institutions  of  a  similar  kind 
that  exist  in  other  large  centres.  There  are  at  present  in 
the  city  of  New  York,  exclusive  of  congregations  and  the 
organizations  mentioned  above,  at  least  seventy-five  socie 
ties  which  cater  to  the  needs  of  the  dependent  poor  and 
which  can  be  classed  as  philanthropic  agencies.  Among 
these  organizations  must  be  included  day  nurseries,  kin 
dergartens,  employment  bureaus,  fresh  air  charities,  hos 
pitals,  dispensaries,  etc.,  of  which  only  general  mention 
can  be  made. 

The  agitation  in  regard  to  tenement-house  legislation  in 
New  York  is  still  too  fresh  in  the  minds  of  students  of 
this  subject  to  require  much  further  mention  here.  It 
will  be  remarked,  however,  that  in  the  campaign  which  was 
made  to  preserve  the  vital  features  of  the  present  tenement- 
house  law,  the  Jewish  residents  on  the  East  Side  of  New 
York  were  a  unit  in  demanding  that  no  drastic  changes  in 
the  law  be  made.  Similarly  at  a  recent  municipal  election, 
it  was  the  citizens  and  voters  of  this  same  district  who  rose 
en  masse  and  in  a  campaign  that  was  startling  in  its 
uniqueness  and  originality,  purged  their  neighborhood  of 
the  vices  and  immorality  which  existed  there.  And  this 
brings  us  to  the  point  at  issue. 


NEW  YORK  73 

The  danger  to  morals  which  lies  in  overcrowding  is  due 
primarily  to  the  inability  to  carry  on  a  natural  home  life. 
The  unit  of  society  after  all  is  the  family,  and  the  preserva 
tion  of  the  latter  means  the  preservation  of  the  social  fabric. 
It  is  not  difficult  to  understand  how  a  people,  who  through 
the  ages  have  been  heralded  as  the  champions  of  purity  in 
the  home,  have  through  the  conditions  under  which  they 
live,  taken  on  some  of  the  attributes  of  their  surroundings 
and  absorbed  some  of  the  deteriorating  effects  of  their  en 
vironment.  The  natural  concomitants  of  overcrowding  are 
disease  and  vice  and  crime.  The  Jew's  power  of  assimi 
lation  is  proverbial.  It  was  but  natural  therefore  that  he, 
along  with  his  Christian  neighbor,  should  be  attacked  in  his 
moral  fibre  in  the  overcrowded  tenements  in  which  he  lived ; 
that  he  should  contract  diseases  which  were  new  and  strange 
to  him,  and  to  which  he  had  formerly  not  been  liable.  In 
fact  his  apparent  immunity  to  tuberculosis  to-day,  in  spite 
of  conditions,  is  a  medical  anomaly.  The  wonder  is  that  a 
greater  percentage  of  the  Jewish  population  residing  in  the 
so-called  "  Ghetto  "  of  our  large  cities  have  not  fallen  vic 
tims  to  the  vices  and  diseases  which  breed  there.  The 
concern  of  the  thinking  Jew  lies  in  the  fact  that  the  per 
centage  of  Jewish  vice  and  crime  and  disease  as  found 
to-day  in  our  large  cities,  small  as  it  may  be,  is  nevertheless 
distinctly  larger  than  statistics  show  to  have  been  the  case 
heretofore. 

In  the  House  of  Refuge  on  Randall's  Island,  there  were 
260  Jewish  boys  and  girls  in  November,  1904.  In  the  Ju 
venile  Asylum  there  are  262  Jewish  children  under  sixteen 
years  of  age  committed  for  various  misdemeanors.  Com 
pared  with  the  entire  Jewish  population  of  the  city,  the 
number  is  insignificant,  and  the  ratio  will  probably  be 
found  to  be  considerably  lower  than  that  of  the  general 
population.  To  the  Jewish  philanthropist  and  sociologist, 
there  is  cause  for  alarm  in  these  figures,  because  he  sees  that 
the  crowded  life  of  the  streets,  the  lack  of  playgrounds  and 
breathing  spots,  the  absence  of  proper  home  surroundings 
have  injurious  effects  on  the  Jewish  child,  to  whom  the 
simplest  legal  misdemeanors  were  in  the  past  unknown. 
And  what  is  true  of  the  child  is  true  of  the  adult.  What 
ever  parasitic  poverty  may  exist  among  Jews  in  the  United 
States  and  in  particular  in  New  York,  whatever  percentage 
of  criminals  and  vicious  persons  may  have  developed,  the 


74  PHILANTHEOPT 

results  are  in  the  main  due  to  the  overcrowding  and  con 
gestion,  to  which  their  poverty  has  subjected  them. 

The  remedy  is  plain  and  simple.  Those  whom  poverty 
and  oppression  have  thrown  together  in  such  close  prox 
imity  and  who  are  compelled  to  live  under  such  unnatural 
conditions,  must  be  given  the  opportunity  to  settle  in  lo 
calities  where  ample  room  will  be  given  for  normal,  physi 
cal,  intellectual,  and  moral  growth.  In  New  York,  w«ith 
characteristic  insight,  many  are  realizing  the  impossibility 
of  full  development  in  their  present  restricted  environment 
and  are  taking  up  residence  in  the  less  settled  outlying 
section  of  the  city.  There  is  no  doubt  that  the  improve 
ment  in  transportation  facilities,  resulting  from  subways 
and  tunnels,  will  considerably  diminish  the  population  of 
the  East  Side.  To  effect  large  results,  some  comprehensive 
scheme  is  necessary  to  relieve  the  congestion  and  to  pre 
vent  the  possibility  of  a  recurrence  of  this  congestion. 


(B)  PHILADELPHIA 


In  view  of  the  fact  that  a  much  greater  number  of 
Russian  Jews  have  congregated  in  New  York  than  in  any 
other  city  in  the  country  it  would  seem  that  any  general 
study  of  philanthropic  and  charitable  activity,  both  as  re 
gards  what  they  accomplish  among  themselves  as  well  as 
that  exerted  in  their  behalf,  should  properly  be  made  in 
that  centre.  There  are,  however,  considerations  which 
weigh  in  favor  of  taking  a  less  congested  community  as  the 
subject  of  such  an  analysis,  particularly  in  view  of  various 
circumstances  which  obviously  affect  the  conditions  in  ques 
tion. 

In  certain  respects,  so  apparent  as  to  have  received  gen 
eral  recognition,  Philadelphia  is  the  typical  American  city. 
It  is  pre-eminently  the  city  of  homes  as  distinguished 
from  dwellings  on  the  tenement  plan,  which  are  so  marked 
a  feature  of  urban  life  in  Europe  and  whose  American 
counterpart  is  found  in  such  extreme  development  in  New 
York  and  to  a  lesser  degree  in  Chicago. 

In  the  less  crowded  condition  of  the  poorer  precincts  of 
Philadelphia  as  compared  with  those  of  the  other  large  cit 
ies  of  the  country,  with  a  correspondingly  greater  latitude 
to  the  individual  affected  by  this  condition,  the  assimila 
tive  force  of  American  institutions  has  greater  play.  Its 
processes  are  carried  out  with  less  hindrance  both  from 
within  and  from  without;  the  Ghetto  is  less  constrained 
by  the  surrounding  pressure  and  therefore  less  intensified 
within  itself.  In  this  light,  the  .Russian  Jews  in  Philadel 
phia  may  be  regarded  as  affording  a  fair  index  of  their 
status  and  course  of  development  in  this  country,  under 
comparatively  normal  conditions. 

Our  immediate  subject,  charity,  presents  indeed  but  one 
aspect  of  that  development,  but  it  is  a  phase  more  essen 
tially  Jewish,  perhaps,  than  any  other.  For  the  Jew  is 
nothing  if  not  charitable,  and  as  the  Russian  Jews  are 
intensely  Jewish,  their  activity  in  the  field  of  philanthropic 
endeavor  is  correspondingly  marked.  But  as  Jewish 

75 


76  PHILANTHROPY 

charity  compasses  every  element  of  the  community  we  must 
needs,  in  considering  it  as  regards  the  Russian  Jew,  dis 
tinguish,  as  already  indicated,  between  that  which  has  been 
and  is  being  done  for  them  by  the  older  settled  portion 
of  the  community  and  that  which  is  done  by  them  and 
among  themselves. 

A  proper  understanding  of  the  conditions  with  which  we 
have  to  deal  requires  a  passing  glance  at  the  historical 
bearings  of  the  subject.  The  conditions  in  general  may  be 
regarded  as  dating  from  1882,  although  a  considerable 
number  of  Russians,  or  rather  of  Polish  and  Hungarian 
Jews,  had  reached  here  before  that  time.  At  that  period 
the  immigration  of  Jews  from  the  German  states  was  fast 
declining.  It  had  gone  on  in  considerable  though  no  very 
large  numbers  from  1820  to  1870.  With  the  diminishing 
needs  of  the  older  section  of  the  community,  its  charitable 
activities  were  extended  in  behalf  of  the  later  comers  and 
its  various  organizations  were  either  merged  in  those  of 
the  latter  or  were  gradually  supplanted  by  them.  The 
project  of  a  Jewish  Foster  Home,  first  suggested  in  1850, 
was  realized  in  1855.  In  1864,  the  Jewish  Hospital  was 
organized.  In  1868,  the  Familien  Waisen  Erziehungs 
Verein,  subsequently  given  its  English  title,  Orphans  Guar 
dians,  replaced  an  earlier  chevra  (society)  which  supported 
widows  and  orphans.  In  1869  the  sporadic  efforts  to  raise 
charity  funds  through  banquets  and  balls,  which  had  gone 
on  from  an  early  date,  were  concentrated  in  a  Charity 
Ball  Association  and  in  the  same  year  a  similar  movement 
resulted  in  a  number  of  the  earlier  aid  societies  being  com 
bined  in  the  organization  of  the  United  Hebrew  Charities. 
In  the  seventies  all  these  organizations  grew  to  increased 
importance  and  power  for  good  and  were  reinforced  by 
others,  such  as  the  lying-in  aid  society,  Esrath  Nashim, 
in  1873,  the  Rappaport  Benevolent  Association  in  1874, 
and  others  of  a  more  temporary  character. 

Up  to  this  time  the  number  of  East  European  Jews 
settled  in  Philadelphia  was  probably  less  than  three  thou 
sand  of  a  total  Jewish  population  of  perhaps  twelve  thou 
sand.  Those  who  were  here  had  come,  a  few  at  a  time, 
as  part  of  the  normal  throng  of  emigrants  from  Europe, 
much  as  the  majority  of  the  German  Jews  had  come  in  the 
previous  years  almost  invariably  into  circles  of  relatives 
or  friends  who  awaited  them. 

It  was  in  Philadelphia,  as  it  happened,  that  the  first 


PHILADELPHIA  11 

large  ship  load  of  Jewish  refugees  from  Russia  landed, 
early  in  March,  1882.  They  had  a  memorable  reception. 
Christians  of  every  denomination  joined  with  the  Jewish 
people  of  the  city  in  offering  these  wanderers  a  welcome 
to  our  shores.  Special  arrangements  were  made  for  hous 
ing,  feeding  and  distributing  them,  and  the  entire  number, 
aggregating  some  four  hundred  souls,  were  gradually 
placed  in  a  position  to  help  themselves.  The  belief  was  at 
first  entertained  that  the  anti-Jewish  riots  which  had 
driven  these  people  from  their  native  homes  were  but  a 
passing  ebullition  of  the  dregs  of  the  populace.  But  the 
manifest  connivance  of  the  Russian  authorities  with  the 
plundering  and  murderous  rabble  and  the  leniency  with 
which  the  leaders  of  the  mob  were  treated  by  the  courts  of 
justice  opened  the  way  for  further  outrages  in  all  parts 
of  the  empire.  Presently,  in  May,  1882,  the  work  of  the 
rabble  was  taken  up  by  the  government  under  the  provi 
sions  of  the  notorious  May  laws.  Gradually  but  steadily 
the  severity  of  these  measures  was  increased  until  they 
culminated  in  the  widespread  official  outrages  of  1890, 
when  Moscow  and  other  large  cities  in  the  interior  of  the 
empire  were  depopulated  of  their  Jewish  citizens  and  the 
unfortunates  herded  in  the  so-called  ' '  Jewish  Pale  ' '  along 
the  Western  frontiers  of  the  empire.  Thence  they  have 
made  their  way,  those  that  could  find  a  way,  in  the  only 
direction  possible  —  westward  —  with  little  hope  of  better 
ment  except  across  the  channel  in  England  or  across  the 
Atlantic  in  America.  And  so  the  comparatively  small 
colony  of  Polish  Jews  who  had  previously  reached  our 
shores  was  rapidly  and  abnormally  augmented  by  refugees 
from  all  portions  of  the  Russian  Empire. 

It  was  inevitable  that  under  these  circumstances  the 
existing  machinery  of  charity,  ample  as  it  had  been  for 
all  previous  needs,  should  become  overwhelmed  and  all  its 
resources  should  be  strained  to  the  extreme.  That  the 
older  and  native  born  Jewish  communities  were  heavily 
burdened,  and  that  they  rose  to  the  occasion,  is  traceable 
in  the  records  of  Jewish  charities  generally,  and  those 
of  Philadelphia  may  well  serve  as  an  example.  The  ex 
penditures  of  the  United  Hebrew  Charities  of  this  city, 
which  had  been  decreasing  for  some  years  previous  to 
1880,  and  which,  exclusive  of  costs  of  administration,  had 
fallen  to  less  than  $12,000  in  that  year,  rose  to  $18,000; 
in  1882,  to  over  $20,000;  in  1883,  to  over  $22,000;  in  the 


78  PHILANTHROPY 

years  from  1885  to  1890,  to  fully  $31,000;  in  1891,  and 
under  the  grievous  stress  of  1892  to  nearly  $48,000.  In 
1893-1894  the  expenditures  averaged  nearly  $40,000 
yearly,  and  from  then  to  the  present  the  average  has  been 
$26,000,  varying  with  the  number  and  condition  of  the  new 
arrivals. 

Previous  to  1882,  the  Eussians,  or  as  they  mostly  were 
at  that  time,  the  Polish  Jews,  had  formed  but  a  secondary 
factor  in  the  work  of  the  United  Hebrew  Charities.  By 
1884  the  proportion  of  Russian  Jews  among  the  applicants 
had  reached  75  per  cent,  and  since  1892  there  has  been 
among  these  scarcely  any  other  element  whatever. 

The  records  of  the  Jewish  Foster  Home  reveal  similar 
conditions.  Up  to  1882  the  proportion  of  children  of 
Polish  or  Russian  parentage  among  its  inmates  was  very 
small.  In  that  year  the  proportion  rose  to  75  per  cent. ;  in 
1891  it  rose  to  91  per  cent. —  nearly  two-thirds  of  the 
number  having  been  born  in  Russia;  and  in  1892  it 
was  92  per  cent.,  but  only  one-third  of  them  of  Russian 
nativity. 

The  Orphans'  Guardian  Society,  which  places  its  charges 
in  private  homes,  has  found  its  efforts  taken  up  in  a  man 
ner  not  essentially  different  from  that  experienced  at  the 
Foster  Home. 

In  1881  the  proportion  of  East  European  Jews  among 
the  patients  at  the  Jewish  Hospital  was  11.5  per  cent. ;  in 
1882  it  rose  to  34  per  cent.  In  the  following  four  years 
the  proportion  averaged  some  24  per  cent. ;  in  the  next 
four  years  about  30  per  cent.,  and  in  1891  it  rose  to  42  per 
cent. 

Another  of  the  older  charity  societies,  the  Esrath  Nashim, 
or  Helping  Women,  is  to  be  noted  in  this  regard.  This 
society  was  organized  in  1873  in  aid  of  lying-in  women  at 
their  homes,  and  after  the  year  1882  devoted  its  efforts 
chiefly  to  the  needs  of  the  refugee  immigrants  from  Rus 
sia.  In  1891  the  demands  on  this  charity,  as  on  all  others, 
grew  beyond  the  compass  of  the  organization,  and  the 
society  found  itself  impelled  to  institute  a  central  estab 
lishment  for  the  care  of  its  charges.  The  society  was 
reorganized  as  the  Jewish  Maternity  Association  in  1892 
and  established  near  Sixth  and  Spruce  Streets  a  hospital 
known  as  the  Maternity  Home,  which  has  since  been  ma 
terially  enlarged.  In  1893  the  patients  treated  at  the  hos 
pital  numbered  116,  and  15  were  treated  at  their  homes. 


PHILADELPHIA  79 

In  19031  the  number  of  patients  was  1,121,  of  whom  244 
were  treated  at  the  hospital.  A  training  school  for  nurses 
was  added  in  1901,  and  at  the  same  time  a  branch  of  the 
work  was  inaugurated  at  Atlantic  City  as  the  Jewish 
Seaside  Home  for  invalid  mothers  and  children.  This 
branch  has  been  latterly  reorganized  as  a  separate  society 
and  its  work  considerably  enlarged. 

The  continuance  and  growth  of  the  Russian  Jewish  im 
migration  after  1882  soon  brought  the  community  to  realize 
the  necessity  of  dealing  with  its  difficulties  in  the  pre 
ventive  as  well  as  palliative  sense.  In  the  fall  of  1884  a 
movement  to  this  end,  originally  started  by  one  of  the 
earlier  refugees,  Jacob  Judelson,  was  taken  up  by  the 
"  uptown  "  community  and  resulted  in  the  formation  of 
the  Association  for  the  Protection  of  Jewish  Immigrants. 
This  society  was  framed  with  the  idea  of  its  continu 
ance  by  the  Russian  Jews  themselves,  but  its  work  rapidly 
grew  beyond  the  ability  of  that  disturbed  element  to  cope 
with  it,  and  it  has  since  been  maintained  almost  exclusively 
by  the  efforts  of  the  older  section  of  the  community. 

The  association  was  organized,  as  stated  in  its  constitu 
tion,  "  to  remove  and  lessen  the  distresses  of  arriving 
Jewish  immigrants  and  to  aid  and  assist  such  as,  for  want 
of  acquaintance  with  the  language  and  laws  of  the  coun 
try,  are  in  danger  of  being  oppressed;  to  obtain  employ 
ment  for  them  and  in  other  respects  to  aid  and  relieve 
them." 

To  this  end  an  agent  was  engaged  to  supervise  the 
landing  of  the  Jewish  immigrants  at  this  port  and  to  guard 
and  direct  them  in  their  course  to  their  proper  destinations. 
At  the  instance  of  the  association  and  with  the  co-operation 
of  the  late  Mahlon  H.  Dickinson,  president  of  the  State 
Board  of  Charities,  its  agent  was  clothed  with  official  au 
thority  by  that  body,  at  that  time  acting  as  a  commission 
of  immigration  on  behalf  of  the  federal  government.  The 
agent  was  aided  by  officers  and  members  of  the  association 
acting  in  rotation,  and  soon  the  system  gave  results  that 
commended  it  to  all  who  were  cognizant  of  its  workings. 
To  further  its  purposes  the  association  leased  a  large  dwell 
ing  at  931  South  Fourth  Street,  and  fitted  up  its  12  rooms 
with  all  the  requisites  of  a  temporary  shelter.  An  employ- 

1  The  number  for  this  year  is  given  in  preference  to  the  figures  from  the 
following  report,  which  contains  records  for  sixteen  months  to  conform  to  the 
year  of  the  Federation  of  Jewish  Charities. 


80  PHILANTHROPY 

ment  agency  was  organized  and  a  competent  agent  was 
placed  in  charge  of  the  office  and  the  shelter.  In  1887 
this  lodge  was  discontinued,  the  wayfarers  being  housed 
under  contract  with  responsible  Jewish  boarding  houses. 
At  the  same  time  the  functions  of  the  employment  bureau 
were  taken  over  by  the  Auxiliary  Branch  of  the  United 
Hebrew  Charities,  which  had  been  specially  organized  for 
the  purpose.  In  other  directions,  however,  the  work  of  the 
association  was  largely  extended,  including  the  tracing  of 
relatives  and  friends  in  all  sections  of  the  Union  for  im 
migrants  who  sought  them  in  this  city,  and  the  recovery 
of  baggage  waylaid  at  numerous  depots  and  stopping 
places,  from  the  Russian  frontiers  to  the  various  ports  on 
both  sides  of  the  Atlantic.  This  charity  is  still  active  and 
has  done  much  to  lessen  the  miseries  of  thousands  of  help 
less  and  hapless  wayfarers  in  their  troubled  course. 

From  1882  to  1904  the  number  of  Jewish  immigrants 
at  the  port  of  Philadelphia  is  estimated  at  about  60,000. 
Of  this  number  the  records  of  the  Association  for  the 
Protection  of  Jewish  Immigrants  contain  the  names  of 
the  greater  part.  Other  data  regarding  the  newcomers, 
such  as  the  destination  to  which  they  were  booked,  the 
points  to  which  they  were  finally  forwarded,  their  general 
condition,  etc.,  are  also  included  in  these  records.  The 
annual  influx  at  Philadelphia  has  varied  from  about  1,500 
in  1884  and  2,310  in  1886,  to  4,984  in  1891  and  5,324  in 
1893,  fluctuating  since  then  down  to  1,649  in  1899,  rising 
to  3,870  in  1900.  The  renewed  proscriptions  and  more 
widespread  expulsions  of  Jewish  citizens  which  blackened 
the  history  of  Russia  in  1891  and  1893  are  marked  by  the 
high  figures  of  the  refugee  immigration  of  those  years  and 
a  similar  flood  tide  of  Roumanian  wickedness  and  folly  is 
indicated  in  the  figures  of  1900.  The  aftermath  of  these 
harvests  of  misery  is  visible  though  not  measurable  in 
Russian  famines  and  Roumanian  bankruptcy. 

Passing  reference  has  already  been  made  to  the  employ 
ment  bureau  of  the  United  Hebrew  Charities.  This  was 
instituted  in  1886  through  a  special  organization  of  young 
men,  which  took  the  form  of  an  auxiliary  branch  of  the 
charities  and  whose  individual  members  gave  their  personal 
efforts  to  the  cause.  The  office  was  located  in  the  southern 
section  of  the  city  and  eventually  in  the  Hebrew  Education 
Society's  Building,  Touro  Hall,  where  it  is  still  conducted. 
The  number  of  applicants  at  this  employment  bureau,  ex- 


PHILADELPHIA  81 

elusive  of  a  large  number  of  temporary  sojourners,  has 
averaged  over  600  per  annum,  of  whom  a  considerable  pro 
portion  have  been  placed  in  positions  to  maintain  them 
selves.  Besides  this  bureau  various  organizations  of 
women  have  been  formed  as  auxiliaries  to  the  United 
Charities,  such  as  the  Ladies'  Auxiliary  Committee,  the 
Ladies'  Volunteer  Visiting  Committee,  and  the  Personal 
Interest  Society,  whose  activity  has  aided  to  a  great  degree 
in  mitigating  the  suffering  of  the  needy  among  the  Russian 
Jews. 

The  gravity  of  the  conditions  which  the  increasing  dis 
tress  of  the  Russian  Jews  entailed  upon  those  of  Western 
Europe  and  America  called  forth  in  1890  the  monumental 
effort  of  the  late  Baron  Maurice  de  Hirsch  for  their 
amelioration.  Of  the  munificent  endowment  which  he 
founded  for  this  purpose  on  this  side  of  the  Atlantic  in 
the  form  of  the  Baron  de  Hirsch  Trust,  a  proportion  of 
the  income  is  allotted  to  Philadelphia.  Of  this  allotment, 
$700  per  month  was  dispensed  directly  to  the  needy  among 
the  recent  arrivals,  for  support  while  learning  trades,  for 
tools,  and  for  transportation  to  the  interior.  This  charity 
continues  to  be  dispensed,  in  varying  amounts,  through 
the  Auxiliary  Branch  of  the  United  Hebrew  Charities. 
Since  1892  a  portion  of  this  fund,  amounting  to  $2,400 
per  year,  has  been  allotted  to  educational  work  through 
the  Hebrew  Education  Society. 

One  important  factor  in  the  charitable  work  put  forth 
in  Philadelphia  yet  remains  to  be  considered,  the  central 
agency  of  ways  and  means.  This  agency  is  now  effected 
through  an  organization  chartered  under  the  title  of  the 
Federation  of  Jewish  Charities,  which  took  up  in  May, 
1901,  the  work  of  financing  the  various  charity  undertak 
ings.  Up  to  that  time  this  troublesome  task  was  performed 
largely  by  the  Hebrew  Charity  Ball  Association,  which 
supplemented  the  sporadic  efforts  of  the  individual  officers 
and  members  of  the  different  societies  with  the  proceeds 
of  their  annual  entertainments.  The  Charity  Ball  Asso 
ciation  was  long  a  mainstay  of  Jewish  philanthropic  work 
in  Philadelphia.  It  was  organized,  coincidently  with  the 
United  Hebrew  Charities  in  1869,  for  the  purpose  of  con 
tinuing  regularly  the  charity  benefit  entertainments  which 
had  previously  been  given  at  irregular  intervals  as  occasion 
arose.  In  time  the  Hebrew  Charity  Ball  became  one  of  the 
most  notable  functions  of  the  winter  season  in  Philadel- 


82  PHILANTHROPY 

phia,  attended  by  large  and  representative  gatherings, 
without  distinction  of  creed.  Its  proceeds,  generally 
amounting  to  over  $20,000,  were  distributed  among  the 
various  charity  societies  according  to  their  respective  needs. 
These  allotments,  however,  still  left  the  major  part  of  the 
necessary  income  to  be  derived  from  other  sources,  from 
membership  dues,  and  endowment  funds,  donation  day  col 
lections,  fairs,  theatre  benefits,  and,  in  large  measure  from 
contributions  through  the  synagogues  on  the  high  holy 
days,  and  finally  through  specially  solicited  funds.  With 
the  growing  demands  of  recent  years  these  diffuse  and  often 
conflicting  agencies  of  financial  support  became  more  and 
more  unsatisfactory  as  well  as  inadequate.  These  con 
ditions  led  to  the  adoption  of  what  has  come  to  be  known 
as  the  "  Liverpool  Plan  "  of  raising  charity  funds,  the 
term  being  derived  from  the  fact  that  the  method  was 
first  applied  in  Liverpool.  It  was  subsequently  adopted 
by  the  Jewish  communities  of  Cincinnati  and  Chicago  and 
latterly,  as  indicated,  in  Philadelphia,  as  well  as  in  other 
cities. 

Under  this  system  every  member  of  the  community  who 
contributes  annually  to  the  Federation  a  sum  at  least 
equal  to  the  total  of  a  members'  dues  in  all  the  constituent 
societies  has  the  right  of  membership  in  each  of  them,  and 
if  the  annual  contribution  be  less  than  that  sum,  then  to  a 
corresponding  extent  in  such  of  the  several  organizations 
as  may  be  preferred  by  the  contributor.  On  the  other 
hand  the  organizations  themselves  are  pledged  to  refrain 
from  all  manner  of  entertainments  and  assemblies  for 
pleasure  in  the  name  of  charity,  or  to  solicit  funds  from 
the  public  otherwise  than  through  the  Federation,  though 
of  course,  voluntary  contributions  from  friends  and 
patrons  are  not  excluded. 

The  results  of  this  measure  during  the  first  years  of  its 
operation  in  Philadelphia  have  been  very  gratifying. 
Where  in  the  preceding  year  the  income  of  the  constituent 
societies  outside  of  that  from  endowment  funds  was  not 
over  $95,000  the  subscription  to  the  Federation  in  its  first 
year  realized  £121,864.07,  the  second  year  $127,398.18,  and 
the  third  year,  ending  April  30,  1904,  121,650.80.  The 
Federation  has  sought,  and  to  an  encouraging  extent  has 
already  attained,  the  great  object  of  unifying  the  forces 
of  the  community  in  the  direction  of  charity  work.  The 
system  gives  promise  not  only  of  rendering  the  work  itself 


PHILADELPHIA  83 

more  efficient  but  also  of  bringing  a  larger  number  of 
individuals  to  join  in  it,  and  of  imbuing  the  latter  with 
a  due  measure  of  public  spirit. 

Passing  to  the  consideration  of  the  philanthropic  works 
which  the  Russian  Jewish  immigrants  in  Philadelphia  have 
organized  among  themselves,  we  find  much  that  illustrates, 
at  the  same  time  that  it  reveals,  the  intense  vitality  of 
the  Jewish  spirit.  It  must  be  remembered  that  we  are 
dealing  with  a  community  of  .refugees,  rather  than  emi 
grants.  The  majority  of  these  people  did  not  leave  their 
native  lands  of  their  own  free  will  and  desire  but  were 
forced  to  go,  often  not  only  without  preparation  for  their 
journey  but  frequently  after  being  robbed  of  most  of 
their  belongings  through  violence  at  home  and  of  much 
of  the  poor  remainder  through  chicanery  on  the  way.  The 
earliest  Russian  Jewish  immigrants,  those  of  the  years 
1882-85,  were  almost  all  of  them  victims  of  violence  in  one 
form  or  another.  So,  too,  were  the  thousands  of  their 
countrymen  who  were  driven  out  of  Russia  during  the 
renewed  outbreaks  of  barbarism  that  centred  at  Moscow  in 
1890.  Scarcely  even  those  who  followed  their  forerunners 
with  passage  prepaid  by  relatives  on  this  side  could  rea 
sonably  be  regarded  as  normal  immigrants.  They  were, 
as  the  majority  of  them  still  are,  members  of  families  that 
had  been  broken  up  in  the  course  of  the  persecutions; 
wives  and  children  joining  some  father  who  had  preceded 
them;  sometimes  parents  with  younger  children  called  to 
join  older  ones  already  settled  here  and  frequently  other 
relatives  and  friends  of  earlier  and  more  fortunate  seekers 
after  freedom  and  fortune  in  America. 

Like  the  first  association  of  their  Sephardic  and  German 
predecessors,  the  first  "  Russian  "  Jewish  society  was  a  ! 
Chevra  Bikur  Cholim,  or  Brotherhood  for  Visiting  the 
Sick.  The  small  community  of  Polish  Jews  who  settled 
about  1870  in  the  northeastern  section  of  the  city,  in  the 
Richmond  district,  organized  a  number  of  chevras  that 
gradually  merged  into  a  congregation  which  included  the 
usual  mutual  aid  and  eleemosynary  features.  Another  of 
these  earlier  associations  for  mutual  aid  and  charity  is  the 
Chevra  Chesed  Shel  Emeth. 

Following  the  example  of  their  German  predecessors,  the 
Polish  immigrants  soon  organized  national  societies  for 
mutual  benefit  and  aid,  some  of  which  were  established 
as  early  as  1860.  During  the  seventies  several  lodges  of 


84  PHILANTHROPY 

this  character  were  established  in  Philadelphia  and  con 
tinued  their  activity  to  the  present  day.  In  the  course  of 
time,  as  the  immigrants  from  one  or  another  of  the  East 
European  lands  grew  in  numbers,  new  societies  were 
started,  composed  of  individuals  drawn  together  by  closer 
ties  of  origin.  Among  the  earliest  an  association  com 
posed  of  Galicians,  formed  in  1876  the  Krakauer  Con 
gregation,  named  after  the  capital  of  Galicia,  and  which 
in  1879  was  merged  with  a  chevra  of  the  same  name. 
Dating  also  from  the  decade  of  the  seventies  is  the  Hun 
garian  congregation  of  the  southern  part  of  the  city,  and 
the  Austro-Hungarian  Association  in  the  northern  section. 
Both  these  institutions,  in  addition  to  other  purposes,  have 
the  usual  functions  of  the  mutual  aid  and  charity  organi 
zations.  There  are  various  other  societies  of  this  nature, 
most  of  them  in  the  southern  section  of  the  city,  and  all 
of  them  active  in  their  mission  of  charity  and  good  will. 
In  general,  the  East  European  Jews  of  the  earlier  and 
voluntary  immigration  prior  to  1882  were  of  a  class  of 
sturdy  and  self-reliant  people,  who  were  mostly  quite 
capable  of  taking  care  of  themselves  and  of  those  depend 
ent  on  or  connected  with  them.  They  comprised  but  few 
individuals  needing  charitable  aid  and  these  they  provided 
for  among  themselves. 

It  was  different  with  the  refugees  who  escaped  hither 
after  1882.  These  came  not  only  in  larger  numbers  but 
also  in  greater  need,  and  inevitably  strained  the  resources 
of  their  earlier  settled  countrymen  as  well  as  those  of  their 
co-religionists  of  other  origin.  The  several  years  following 
the  beginning  of  this  movement  comprised  a  period  of 
marked  disorganization  among  the  newcomers.  As  soon, 
however,  as  the  first  years  of  stress  and  struggle  were 
past,  reorganization  began  to  become  apparent  and  in  the 
course  of  the  decade  one  after  another  of  various  mutual 
aid  societies  were  formed,  so  that  in  1892  they  had  organ- 
zied  28  mutual  aid  societies  besides  5  lodges  and  5  syna 
gogues. 

A  marked  development  of  communal  activity  in  the  Rus 
sian  Jewish  community  dates  from  about  1890.  In  that 
year  the  immigrant  shelter,  carried  on  by  the  Association 
for  the  Protection  of  Jewish  Immigrants,  was  taken  over 
by  the  Hachnosas  Orchim,  or  Wayfarer's  Lodge.  This  so 
ciety,  incorporated  in  1891,  opened  a  house  for  the  tempo 
rary  shelter  and  maintenance  of  immigrants  waiting  to  find 


PHILADELPHIA  85 

employment  or  relatives  or  friends  of  whom  they  had  lost 
trace,  and  has  developed  considerable  activity  in  that 
respect.  The  society  now  owns  and  occupies  two  adjoin 
ing  houses  at  218  and  220  Lombard  Street,  at  times  accom 
modating  over  100  inmates.  It  has  about  500  members 
and  1,000  contributors  paying  a  total  of  about  $2,500 
annually,  besides  donations  of  clothing,  food,  and  other 
supplies.  In  1898  this  society  extended  its  sphere  to  in 
clude  the  maintenance  of  a  Moshav  Z'kenim  or  Home  for 
the  Aged,  where  a  number  of  superannuated  men  and 
women  are  permanently  sheltered.  This  feature  of  the 
institution  is  being  specially  fostered,  and  will  doubtless 
form  the  main  branch  of  the  society's  activity  when,  as  is 
to  be  hoped,  the  immigrant  shelter  will  no  longer  be  a 
necessity. 

In  1891  the  Maimonides  Clinic  for  the  treatment  of 
indigent  immigrants  by  Russian  Jewish  physicians  was 
established  and  was  succeeded  in  1896  by  the  Franklin 
Free  Dispensary.  In  1889  a  society  of  a  similar  nature  was 
organized  under  the  name  of  the  Beth  Israel  Hospital 
and  the  following  year  the  dispensary  and  hospital  so 
cieties  were  merged.  A  fully  equipped  dispensary  was 
established  at  236  Pine  Street.  At  about  the  same  time 
the  Mount  Sinai  Hospital  Association  was  organized  and 
in  a  short  time  absorbed  the  dispensary  society.  It  also 
established  an  out-patient  department.  The  hospital 
erected  at  Fifth  and  Wilder  Streets  was  opened  in  the 
spring  of  1905. 

In  1892  the  Independent  Chevra  Kadisho  was  estab 
lished  to  afford  free  burial  in  cases  where  the  family  of 
the  deceased  is  too  poor  to  bear  the  expense.  Its  member 
ship  is  about  3,000,  who  pay  ten  cents  per  month.  The 
society  has  purchased  properties  at  408-10-12  Christian 
Street,  on  the  site  of  which  there  are  erected  a  synagogue, 
school  building,  and  hall  in  addition  to  the  rooms  used 
for  the  society's  own  purposes.  There  are  three  smaller 
free  burial  societies  with  a  similar  object. 

A  loan  society,  the  Women's  Society,  Gemilas  Chaso- 
dim,  was  organized  in  1896.  It  makes  loans  without 
interest  to  deserving  persons  in  amounts  from  $5  to  $25, 
repayable  in  installments.  Pledges  of  gold  or  silver  are 
required  as  security.  The  capital  of  the  society  is  $2,378.87 
and  the  amount  loaned  during  the  past  year  was  $3,050. 
There  is  a  smaller  organization  with  a  similar  purpose. 


86  PHILANTHEOPY 

Among  relief  societies  should  be  mentioned  the  Malbish 
Arumim  (Clothing  the  Naked),  which  has  been  active 
since  1894,  with  the  object  of  helping  the  needy  children 
of  the  Talmud  Torah  schools  with  necessary  clothing.  It 
has  about  200  members.  A  very  worthy  charitable  effort 
is  represented  by  the  United  Relief  Association  which 
includes  about  200  members  and  affords  aid  in  cases  re 
quiring  immediate  attention,  furnishes  matzos  (unleavened 
bread)  to  the  poor,  and  wine  and  eggs  to  the  sick.  The 
Roumanian  Relief  Association,  established  in  1900,  has 
developed  into  the  Roumanian  Educational  Society,  which 
carries  on  a  night  school  at  422  N.  Fourth  Street.  One 
of  the  latest  and  most  active  of  the  charitable  societies  is 
the  Ladies '  Hebrew  Emergency  Society,  organized  in  1904, 
which  has  a  membership  of  300  and  an  income  of  $1,600. 

Among  the'  important  charities  established  by  Russian 
Jews  is  the  Home  for  Hebrew  Orphans,  which  occupies  the 
large  building  at  the  southwest  corner  of  Tenth  and  Bain- 
bridge  Streets.  It  has  a  membership  of  about  3,000,  who 
contribute  from  10  cents  per  month  to  $5.00  per  annum. 
The  annual  income  last  year  to  August  31,  1904,  was 
$12,315.35.  The  home  gives  shelter  and  training  to  61 
children. 

From  what  has  been  here  noted,  it  will  be  apparent  that 
the  process  of  generating  a  stable  and  progressive  com 
munity  out  of  the  disorganized  and  harried  victims  of 
Slavic  ignorance  and  brutality  is  well  under  way  in  Phila 
delphia.  Much  yet  remains  to  be  done,  not  only  among 
themselves,  but  by  other  elements  of  the  community,  to 
further  their  progress  toward  stability  and  order,  but  the 
advances  already  attained  by  the  Russian  Jewish  com 
munity  afford  an  ample  reassurance  for  the  future. 


(C)  CHICAGO 

During  the  Russian  Jewish  immigration  of  1881-82, 
about  two  thousand  persons  found  refuge  in  the  city  of 
Chicago.  A  special  committee,  known  as  the  Russian 
Refugee  Aid  Committee,  had  full  charge  of  the  immigrants 
and  of  the  many  problems  incident  to  their  care.  The 
committee,  which  was  composed  of  representative  citizens, 
was  independent  of  the  Hebrew  Relief  Association.  It 
succeeded  in  handling  the  difficulties  of  providing  for  the 
immigrants  in  a  satisfactory  manner.  About  $14,000  was 
contributed  as  a  special  fund  to  defray  the  expense  in 
curred. 

Families  were  separated  in  groups  of  ten,  each  group 
being  installed  in  a  temporary  home,  with  one  family  at 
the  head.  The  privileges  of  such  a  home  were  ordinarily 
granted  for  three  weeks.  At  the  end  of  that  time  a  family 
was  expected  to  be  in  a  position  to  take  quarters  on  its 
own  responsibility.  Most  of  the  people  settled  in  a  district 
now  known  as  the  Ghetto,  which  even  at  that  early  time 
contained  a  large  Jewish  population. 

Every  possible  effort  was  made  by  the  committee  to 
procure  employment  for  the  heads  of  families,  and  so 
responsive  did  the  general  public  in  the  city  prove  that 
it  was  only  during  the  last  few  months  of  the  year  that  it 
was  necessary  to  send  the  immigrants  into  the  country 
towns  throughout  the  state.  The  majority  of  the  men 
were  either  merchants  or  peddlers;  some  were  laborers, 
and  a  very  small  number  mechanics.  A  member  of  the 
committee  recently  stated  that  most  of  the  immigrants 
succeeded  fairly  well  in  their  various  lines  of  employment, 
and  very  few  were  afterwards  forced  upon  the  care  of  the 
Hebrew  Relief  Association. 

During  the  past  twenty  years  or  more,  the  many  Jewish 
relief-giving  societies  had  been  working  independently, 
without  due  co-operation,  or  a  spirit  of  mutual  helpfulness. 
Each  society  had  its  own  method  of  raising  annually  the 
necessary  funds  for  the  year's  work.  The  public  was, 

87 


88  PHILANTHROPY 

therefore,  continually  annoyed  by  the  receipt  of  benefit 
tickets,  through  the  mail,  or  otherwise,  for  balls,  festivals, 
theatrical  performances,  concerts,  card  parties,  and  other 
forms  of  entertainment.  In  order  to  bring  the  various 
philanthropic  forces  of  the  city,  especially  the  relief 
agencies,  into  closer  and  more  sympathetic  relation  and  to 
establish  a  plan  of  raising  money  in  a  manner  more  accept 
able  to  contributors  to  charity,  the  Associated  Jewish 
Charities  of  Chicago  was  organized. 

The  new  organization  received  its  charter  in  April,  1900. 
"  The  particular  business  and  objects  for  which  it  is 
formed  are  to  provide  a  permanent,  efficient  and  practical 
mode  of  collecting,  administering  and  distributing  the  con 
tributions  of  the  Jews  and  others  of  Chicago  for  private 
charitable  purposes;  to  put  into  practical  and  efficient 
operation  the  best  systems  for  relieving  and  preventing 
want,  and  checking  pauperism  among  the  Jewish  poor  of 
said  city;  to  aid  the  sick,  the  aged,  the  poor,  the  unfor 
tunate,  the  widows  and  orphans."  This  new  association 
proved  a  financial  success  in  the  first  year  if  its  existence. 

One  of  the  most  desirable  results  has  been  the  consolida 
tion  of  all  relief-giving  agencies.  Belief,  such  as  donations 
of  cash,  fuel  and  clothing,  is  distributed  through  one  cen 
tral  body,  the  Eelief  Department  of  the  United  Hebrew 
Charities.  The  women's  organizations  formerly  contribut 
ing  relief  have  practically  given  up  work  of  this  nature, 
and  are  devoting  their  energies  to  specific  charities  desig 
nated  by  the  United  Hebrew  Charities. 
•'  The  institutions  and  societies  receiving  support  from  the 
Associated  Jewish  Charities  are:  The  United  Hebrew 
Charities,  for  running  expense  of  the  Michael  Reese  Hos 
pital;  Dispensary  and  Eelief  Department,  with  its 
branches ;  Home  for  Aged  Jews ;  Chicago  Home  for  Jewish 
Orphans ;  Jewish  Manual  Training  School ;  Maxwell  Street 
Settlement ;  Bureau  of  Personal  Service ;  Home  for  Jewish 
Friendless  and  Working  Girls;  the  Woman's  Loan  Associ 
ation  ;  Chicago  Lying-in  Dispensary  and  Hospital,  for  Dis 
pensary  Department.  Donations  are  also  sent  to  the  Cleve 
land  Hebrew  Orphan  Asylum  and  the  National  Home  for 
Consumptives  at  Denver. 

Although  the  institutions  supported  by  the  Associated 
Jewish  Charities  are  managed  by  their  special  boards  of 
directors,  they  are  visited  by  sub-committees  from  the  cen 
tral  organization  and  are  subject  to  that  organization. 


CHICAGO  89 

In  October,  1859,  the  several  societies  dispensing  charity 
to  the  Jewish  poor  of  Chicago  organized  for  the  purpose 
of  working  jointly  under  the  name  of  the  United  Hebrew 
Relief  Association.  The  object  was  to  aid  distressed  co- 
religiomsts  by  providing  medical  assistance  and  material 
relief.  For  the  twenty  years  succeeding  the  formation  of 
this  union  of  societies  about  $120,000  was  expended  in  the 
relief  department  proper.  The  subscriptions  to  this  gen 
eral  relief  fund  increased  steadily  from  year  to  year, 
$389,500  having  been  received  from  1879  to  1899,  inclusive, 
the  expenditures  keeping  pace  with  the  receipts.  During 
the  greater  part  of  its  existence,  the  Relief  Department 
has  conducted  under  its  auspices  the  Michael  Reese  Hos 
pital,  the  West  Side  Free  Dispensary,  and  a  labor  bureau. 
The  organization  is  now  known  as  the  United  Hebrew 
Charities.  It  is  located  on  the  South  Side  at  223  Twenty- 
sixth  Street,  somewhat  distant  from  the  congested  districts. 
The  Relief  Department  confers  the  ordinary  benefits  of 
such  a  department,  distributing  mainly  cash,  clothing  and 
fuel.  Transportation  is  an  item  of  considerable  expense  to 
the  association.  Since  the  organization  of  the  Associated 
Jewish  Charities,  the  scope  of  the  work  of  the  United 
Hebrew  Charities  has  been  materially  enlarged. 

The  Michael  Reese  Hospital  (established  in  1881)  con 
tains  fully  65  per  cent,  of  Russian  Jews  among  its  patients 
annually,  according  to  its  superintendent.  The  number  of 
patients,  about  2,000,  shows  how  large  is  the  work  of  this 
institution.  An  additional  equipment  is  needed  and  the 
sum  of  $400,000  has  recently  been  raised  for  a  new  hos 
pital  on  the  old  grounds. 

A  dispensary  for  poor  Jews  was  founded  and  located 
in  the  Ghetto  district  during  1893.  This  dispensary  is  a 
part  of  the  United  Hebrew  Charities  and  is  in  charge  of 
a  special  board.  The  spacious  quarters  and  excellent 
equipment  of  a  new  building  erected  a  few  years  ago  have 
delighted  physician  and  patient  alike  and  made  it  possible 
to  do  much  more  effective  work. 

In  February,  1884,  an  employment  bureau  was  opened 
in  connection  with  the  United  Hebrew  Charities  in  its  office 
on  Twenty-sixth  Street.  The  object  of  this  bureau  is  to  make 
families  self-supporting  by  securing  employment  for  the 
wage  workers.  The  majority  of  the  applicants  are  labor 
ers,  mechanics,  and  factory  workers.  The  stock  yards, 
iron  yards,  tanneries,  various  other  factories,  and  depart- 


90  PHILANTHROPY 

ment  stores  co-operate  with  this  bureau.  Merchants, 
hucksters  and  peddlers  are  helped  by  the  loan  societies, 
which  thus  materially  supplement  the  work  of  the  Em 
ployment  Bureau. 

The  Chicago  Woman's  Aid,  an  organization  for  lit 
erary  and  philanthropic  purposes,  for  three  seasons  sup 
ported  a  work-room  for  women.  The  work-room  was  in 
charge  of  a  paid  superintendent,  and  members  of  the 
society  took  an  active  part  in  the  executive  and  personal 
service  departments.  Work  was  provided  for  about  five 
months  each  year  during  the  winter.  Since  the  union  of 
all  relief-giving  forces,  the  work-room  became  part  of  and 
supported  by  the  United  Hebrew  Charities.  The  members 
of  the  Chicago  Woman's  Aid,  however,  superintended 
the  management  of  the  work-room  and  were  active  in  the 
same  manner  as  heretofore.  The  rooms  were  on  the  West 
Side,  within  walking  distance  of  Hull  House,  thus  being 
convenient  for  women  who  wish  to  leave  their  young  chil 
dren  at  the  Hull  House  Day  Nursery.  The  hours  were  from 
9  a.  m.  to  12  m.,  and  from  1  to  4  p.  m.  The  superintend 
ent  was  assisted  by  one  permanently  employed  cutter  and 
several  who  work  part  of  the  time.  In  extreme  cases, 
work  was  supplied  at  home,  but  it  was  preferred  to  have 
women  come  to  the  work  room.  The  garments  made  were 
baby  outfits,  including  skirts,  nightgowns,  sheets,  etc. 
Other  articles  made  were  ladies'  underwear,  calico  wrap 
pers,  children's  dresses,  boys'  blouses,  overalls,  physicians' 
coats,  and  linens,  such  as  towels,  pillow  cases  and  sheets. 
The  beneficiaries  of  the  work  room  were  such  women  as 
would  ordinarily  be  entitled  to  the  benefits  of  relief  so 
cieties,  especially  the  United  Hebrew  Charities.  Aban 
doned  wives,  widows,  and  women  with  invalid  husbands 
were  employed.  They  received  seventy-five  cents  a  day. 
The  daily  earnings  were  formerly  fifty  cents.  When  pay 
ment  was  made  at  this  rate,  it  was  still  necessary,  in  most 
cases,  for  the  United  Hebrew  Charities  to  advance  the  rent 
for  the  women  employed.  It  was,  therefore,  considered 
advisable  to  let  the  women  earn  the  extra  amount,  instead 
of  having  them  apply  to  the  Relief  Department  for  it.  A 
warm  lunch  was  furnished. 

The  employment  of  these  women,  requiring  them  to  give 
at  least  a  partial  equivalent  for  what  they  get,  is  a  most 
creditable  way  of  helping  them.  It  is  far  superior  to  the 
old-time  method  of  unconditional  giving.  It  tends  to  keep 


CHICAGO  91 

them  away  from  the  relief  agencies,  fosters  self-respect, 
and  is,  in  many  ways,  a  most  wholesome  substitute  for 
alms.  It  gives  those  who  ordinarily  spend  their  days  in 
dingy,  unclean  tenements  an  opportunity  to  leave  the 
crowded  quarters  for  seven  hours  a  day,  to  breathe  purer 
air,  to  learn  the  value  of  cleanliness,  and  to  live  in  an 
atmosphere  of  cheerfulness  and  refinement. 

The  Home  for  Jewish  Orphans  was  founded  in  March, 
1893.  In  the  fall  of  the  following  year  a  private  residence 
was  rented  in  the  southern  portion  of  the  city,  where 
orphans  were  sheltered  until  1899,  when  the  present  per 
manent  Home  was  ready  for  occupancy.  It  is  located 
opposite  the  Home  for  Aged  Jews,  corner  Drexel  Avenue 
and  Sixty-second  Street.  It  is  for  the  benefit  of  orphans, 
residents  of  Cook  County,  where  the  death  of  the  parent 
or  parents  occurs  within  the  boundaries  of  the  county. 
Children  of  an  insane  parent  are  also  eligible.  The  num 
ber  of  inmates  is  172,  of  whom  90  per  cent,  are  of  Russian 
or  Polish  Jewish  origin. 

The  Home  for  Aged  Jews  was  opened  for  occupancy 
in  1893.  Of  the  71  inmates  in  the  Home,  12  are  Russian 
and  Polish  Jewish.  Ordinarily,  the  aged  Russian  and 
Polish  Jews  cannot  be  prevailed  upon  to  enter  this  Home. 
It  is  impossible  to  convince  them  that  all  the  laws  pertain 
ing  to  a  strictly  kosher  plan  (that  is  with  food  served 
according  to  the  Mosaic  law)  are  enforced.  For  this  rea 
son,  the  Russian  Jews  of  Chicago  have  made  strenuous 
efforts  to  establish  their  own  home  for  the  aged,  which 
they  maintain  in  a  manner  to  suit  the  orthodox. 

The  Home  for  Jewish  Friendless  and  Working  Girls  is 
a  recent  addition.  There  are  120  occupants  of  its  building. 

Early  in  the  winter  of  1900,  a  number  of  Russian  Jews 
on  t,he~  West.  Sidqheld  local  meetings  for  the  purpose  of 
enlisting  the  sympathies  of  the  people  in  behalf  of  a  home 
for  aged  orthodox  Jews.  The  idea  was  conceived  by  resi 
dents  of  the  Russian  district,  where  many  of  the  aged  live 
in  privation  and  want.  Appeals  for  contributions  were 
sent  to  local  societies,  to  the  social  and  beneficial  organiza 
tions,  and  to  the  Russian  Jews  at  large.  The  project  was 
enthusiastically  received.  Ground  valued  at  $5,600  was 
purchased  opposite  one  of  the  large  parks  of  the  city,  far 
removed  from  the  haunts  of  poverty.  For  an  entire  week 
during  December,  1900,  a  bazaar  was  held  for  the  benefit 
of  the  Home  fund.  The  Russian  Jewish  population 


92  PHILANTHROPY 

worked  arduously  to  make  this  affair  a  success,  and  their 
efforts  were  rewarded  by  a  $11,000  cash  account  to  be 
added  to  the  fund  already  in  hand.  The  Home  received 
its  first  inmates  May  3,  1903.  There  are  48  inmates 
(1904). 

The  Bureau  of  Personal  Service  was  organized  in  Novem 
ber,  1897.  The  Bureau  is  administrative  in  its  policy,  its 
object  being  to  bring  into  closer  co-operation  the  philan 
thropic  forces  of  the  neighborhood,  to  establish  a  thorough 
system  of  investigation  and  registration,  and  to  promote 
social  service.  It  is  non-sectarian,  but  is  located  in  the 
Russian  Jewish  settlement  and  fully  ninety-five  per  cent, 
of  the  applicants  are  of  the  Jewish  faith. 

The  school  census  of  1898  showed  that  in  the  Seventh, 
Eighth  and  Nineteenth  Wards,  immediately  adjoining  each 
other,  there  were  15,339  foreign  born  Russian  Jews,  and 
13,678  American  born,  making  a  total  of  29,017.  The 
greatest  number  of  these  are  located  in  the  immediate 
vicinity  of  the  Bureau,  which  is  in  the  heart  of  the  Ghetto. 

The  Bureau  gives  relief  only  in  emergency  cases,  refer 
ring  applicants  to  the  proper  organizations  for  permanent 
help.  The  giving  of  alms  is  not  advocated,  nor  is  a  single 
person  recommended  for  such,  unless  no  substitute  can  be 
found.  Despite  the  fact  that  the  office  is  in  the  midst  of 
the  greatest  poverty  in  the  city,  it  is  not  looked  upon  as 
a  relief  agency.  In  all  other  matters  pertaining  to  the 
family  life,  or  the  needs  of  the  poor  apart  from  material 
relief,  the  good  offices  of  the  Bureau  are  sought.  Through 
out  the  neighborhood  the  bureau  workers  are  called  "  the 
mothers  of  the  poor."  This  expression  shows  clearly  the 
sentiment  of  the  people  toward  the  Bureau  and  its  relation 
to  them.  As  the  mother  aims  to  meet  the  needs  of  her 
children,  caring  for  their  minor  grievances  and  complaints, 
as  well  as  for  their  grave  necessities  and  troubles,  so  the 
Bureau  endeavors  to  serve  the  poor  of  the  vicinity.  It 
stands  as  a  friendly  service  society,  stopping  only  at  the 
repeated  bestowal  of  alms. 

The  Bureau  is  in  active  co-operation  with  all  the  relief 
societies  of  the  city;  with  the  courts,  inasmuch  as  they 
are  concerned  with  ordinary  problems  of  justice  affecting 
the  poor;  with  the  loan  organizations;  with  other  societies 
engaged  in  preventive  charity ;  and  with  all  medical,  hous 
ing,  and  correctional  institutions  or  societies. 

Both  the  superintendent  and  the  assistant  superintend- 


CHICAGO  93 

ent  are  probation  officers  of  the  juvenile  court.  The  ques 
tion  of  caring  for  dependent  children,  not  orphans,  and  for 
delinquent  Jewish  children  had  not  heretofore  been  con 
sidered  by  philanthropic  workers  among  the  Jews  of  Chi 
cago.  The  great  need  of  doing  preventive  work  with  and 
for  the  children,  particularly  of  the  West  Side,  was  so 
strongly  forced  upon  the  attention  of  the  Bureau,  that  it 
appeared  an  unpardonable  neglect  of  duty  to  overlook  it 
any  longer.  The  system  of  paroling  a  child  not  only  gives 
to  the  probation  officer  access  to  the  home  and  authority 
over  the  child,  but  brings  her  into  close  and  sympathetic 
relations  with  the  entire  family.  It  has  been  astonishing 
to  the  Chicago  public  to  learn  that  many  of  the  children 
of  the  Ghetto  are  on  the  road  to  delinquency.  The  success 
of  working  in  a  friendly  way  with  children  and  parents 
has  been  most  gratifying. 

Fully  one  half  of  the  entire  time  of  the  employees  of 
the  Bureau  is  spent  in  personal  service  and  friendly  inter 
course  with  the  neighborhood  people. 

A  work-room  for  women  was  conducted  in  connection 
with  the  Bureau,  upon  its  premises.  Payment  was  in  kind 
at  the  rate  of  fifty  cents  per  day;  cash  was  given  only  in 
the  most  urgent  cases  and  then  not  regularly.  The  pay 
ment  in  kind  was  on  a  very  liberal  scale.  Besides  food, 
fuel  and  second-hand  clothing,  women  had  the  privilege  of 
purchasing  household  goods,  shoes,  new  wearing  apparel, 
or  any  necessary  merchandise  to  the  amount  of  their  earn 
ings.  From  two  to  five  days'  work  per  week  was  allowed 
applicants,  according  to  their  needs.  It  is  very  evident, 
especially  during  the  winter  season,  that  the  names  of 
many  families  appear  on  the  records  of  relief  societies 
merely  for  clothing  and  fuel.  Opportunity  for  purchasing 
these  necessities  by  a  certain  amount  of  labor  was  afforded 
through  the  work-room.  The  reports  for  the  winter 
months  show  that  nearly  all  the  work  was  paid  in  coal, 
shoes,  and  clothes.  Second-hand  clothing  was  solicited  by 
the  Work-room  Committee.  In  this  way  women  could  earn 
dresses  and  wraps  of  fine,  serviceable  materials,  which  they 
could  not  possibly  have  gotten  otherwise. 

The  two  work-rooms  to  which  reference  has  been  made 
have  gone  out  of  existence,  but  a  description  of  them  has 
nevertheless  been  thought  desirable. 

The  Russian  Jew  of  Chicago  occupies  a  unique  position 
in  his  idea  of  regenerative  philanthropy.  No  actual  relief 


94  PHILANTHROPY 

distributing  agency  has  been  established  through  this  popu 
lation.  The  need  of  such  an  agency  has  probably  not  been 
felt,  owing  to  the  existence  of  the  United  Hebrew  Charities. 
Nevertheless,  the  Russian  Jew  loves  to  give;  to  give  freely 
in  his  own  peculiar  way,  and  never  seems  quite  so  happy 
as  when  contributing  his  mite  towards  a  charitable  cause. 
The  demands  upon  him  often  become  burdensome,  for  it 
is  the  poor  man,  he  who  earns  just  enough  to  meet  his  own 
meagre  demands,  who  takes  pleasure  in  giving  to  others. 
His  idea  of  method,  or  a  discriminate  bestowing  of  alms, 
is  indeed  vague.  In  fact,  he  thinks  very  little  about  it. 
If  his  neighbor  is  in  distress,  he  considers  himself  respon 
sible,  in  a  measure,  for  the  welfare  of  that  neighbor.  If 
necessary,  all  his  friends  and  acquaintances  are  called  upon 
to  share  the  responsibility.  As  he  has  established  no  relief 
agency  to  which  he  may  apply  for  aid,  he  works  tm  the 
theory  that  he  is  his  brother's  keeper.  What  is  con 
tributed  annually,  in  a  quiet  way,  by  private  donations,  for 
special  cases  of  distress,  to  individuals  or  to  families,  can 
not  well  be  estimated,  but  the  amount  would  without  doubt 
be  surprising. 

The  liberal  attitude  that  the  Ghetto  resident  assumes 
toward  his  neighbor  in  distress,  the  sacrifices  he  makes,  the 
inconveniences  he  suffers,  the  privations  he  endures, —  his 
generous  bestowal  of  time  and  self  —  are  worthy  of  emula 
tion  ;  the  charity  of  the  poor  for  the  poor  puts  our  own  to 
shame.  The  poor  Russian  Jew  teaches  us  the  highest  type 
of  charity.  There  is  always  room  in  the  smallest  tenement 
—  though  there  be  but  two  beds  with  seven  occupants  — 
for  the  neighboring  family  that  is  temporarily  homeless; 
there  is  always  a  crust  of  bread,  dry  though  it  be,  for  the 
hungry  one  who  needs  it.  A  little  coal  can  be  cheerfully 
spared  —  though  there  be  but  a  bucketful  —  if  the  children 
nearby  are  suffering  from  the  cold.  How  gladly  the  proud 
possessor  of  a  bonnet  ties  the  precious  object  upon  the 
head  of  her  less  fortunate  sister  when  the  latter  finds  it 
necessary  to  leave  the  neighborhood  for  some  special  pur 
pose.  Not  the  bonnet  alone,  but  very  often  dress  and 
wrap  are  loaned  with  equal  readiness.  How  many  a 
woman,  the  mother  of  a  large  family  of  little  ones,  goes 
into  another  home  where  sickness  has  entered,  and  nurses 
the  suffering  one  back  to  health.  How  earnestly  she  goes 
about  the  work,  preparing  the  necessary  articles  of  diet, 
ministering  to  the  needs  of  the  little  ones,  doing  in  that 


CHICAGO  95 

strange  home  what  she  does  in  her  own,  even  to  the  wield 
ing  of  the  scrub  brush  for  the  Sabbath  cleaning!  It  is 
this  beautiful  spirit  of  sharing  himself  and  what  belongs 
to  him  that  constitutes  the  greatest  charm  of  the  Russian 
Jew. 

Among  the  local  Eussian  Jewish  organizations,  there  are 
a  few  of  minor  importance,  purely  charitable  in  purpose, 
each  having  a  distinct  object,  so  that  none  interferes  with 
or  duplicates  the  work  of  the  other.  The  most  important 
local  society  working  in  the  Ghetto  and  deriving  the 
greater  part  of  its  support  from  the  residents  of  the  dis 
trict  is  the  Society  for  the  Free  Burial  of  the  Dead.  About 
$5,000  is  raised  annually,  most  of  the  money  being  sub 
scribed  in  weekly  contributions  of  five,  ten,  or  fifteen  cents. 
Two  collectors  are  employed  for  gathering  these  small 
amounts  from  hundreds  of  patrons.  The  society  owns  its 
own  burial  ground  and  a  hearse,  and  employs  an  under 
taker  at  a  salary  of  $50  a  month. 

The  Chicago  Young  Men's  Hebrew  Charity  Association, 
composed  of  young  men,  Russians  or  of  Russian  parentage, 
does  more  or  less  relief  work  in  the  winter  months,  expend 
ing  about  $500  during  the  season.  The  Bread  for  the 
Hungry  Society  distributes  bread  and  meat  once  a  week 
to  deserving  poor.  The  Woman's  Society,  conducted  in 
connection  with  the  Montefiore  Free  School,  furnishes 
clothing  for  poor  boys  of  the  school.  A  Sheltering  Home, 
a  small  institution,  is  for  the  benefit  of  strangers.  Tran 
sients  and  newcomers  are  given  temporary  lodging  free 
of  charge. 

Most  of  the  subscriptions  to  these  various  local  charities 
are  raised  in  small  amounts,  five  or  ten  cents  weekly  being 
the  usual  contribution  from  each  subscriber.  In  fact,  this 
is  the  method  in  vogue  throughout  the  district  for  the  col 
lection  of  monies  for  charitable  purposes. 

As  has  been  indicated,  the  charities  of  the  Russian  Jews 
do  not  show  evidence  of  method  or  union  of  forces.  In 
fact,  relief  work,  and  all  branches  of  philanthropy  usually 
classed  under  this  head,  are  considered  of  secondary  im 
portance  to  the  provision  of  some  wholesome  substitute  for 
alms.  Within  the  Ghetto  proper,  including  an  area  of 
about  a  dozen  square  blocks,  twelve  societies,  each  inde 
pendent,  are  engaged  in  loaning  money  to  the  poorest 
classes.  All  but  one,  the  Woman's  Loan,  are  managed  in 
connection  with  congregations.  Loans,  however,  are  not 


96  PHILANTHROPY 

restricted  to  members  of  congregations.  Any  poor  Jew, 
regardless  of  belief  or  nationality,  may  become  eligible  to 
its  good  offices,  by  complying  with  the  conditions  of  the 
society.  This  plan  of  offering  a  substitute  for  alms  to  the 
self-respecting  poor  is  one  which,  in  its  essentials,  did  not 
originate  in  this  country.  It  is  a  custom  that  the  Russian 
Jews  brought  with  them  from  their  native  homes. 

In  all  our  large  cities  and  even  in  many  of  the  smaller 
ones  we  find  hospitals  for  the  sick,  institutions  for  the 
afflicted  and  dependent,  societies  and  relief  agencies  for  the 
benefit  of  periodically  recurrent  or  emergency  cases  of  dis 
tress.  Yet  we  do  not  make  adequate  provision  or  offer 
proper  relief  to  the  respectable  poor,  temporarily  in  want, 
or  handicapped  through  lack  of  employment,  nor  do  we 
reach  those  who  might  be  able  to  help  themselves  by  enter 
ing  into  some  legitimate  occupation  on  their  own  responsi 
bility  and  thus  be  spared  the  humiliation  of  receiving  alms. 
The  particular  phase  of  philanthropy  which  furnishes  a 
wholesome  substitute  for  alms  in  the  case  of  the  independ 
ent,  self-respecting  poor,  seems  to  have  been  strangely  over 
looked  by  the  Jewish  people  engaged  in  caring  for  the 
needs  of  their  Russian  brethren. 

We  find  many  among  our  poor  Russian  and  Polish  Jews, 
though  utterly  unskilled  in  the  trades,  or  incompetent, 
through  lack  of  proper  physical  development,  to  serve  as 
laborers,  who  are  still  able  to  deal  in  certain  wares,  or  con 
duct  small  business  concerns,  on  their  own  account.  The 
amount  required  to  give  them  a  start  and  an  occasional 
lift  is  considerably  less  than  would  be  the  cost  of  pension 
ing  them  by  a  relief  society.  However  opposed  a  man 
may  be  to  accepting  gifts  unconditionally, —  when  he  be 
comes  through  force  of  circumstances  initiated  in  the 
pangs  of  hunger,  when  his  family  are  suffering  for  want 
of  bread,  and  no  employment  is  open  to  him,  he  is  naturally 
forced  to  accept  aid  either  outright  or  conditionally.  The 
"  outright  "  policy  is  most  dangerous,  for  it  opens  invit 
ingly  the  doors  to  pauperism.  The  man  who  with  reluc 
tance  and  aversion  tastes  the  first  bitterness  of  alms  gradu 
ally,  with  ambition  and  manhood  stunted,  looks  upon 
'charity  as  a  necessity,  and  finally  as  a  natural  right. 

The  Russian  Jew,  the  Jew  of  the  Ghetto,  has  taught  us 
the  lesson  of  preventing  such  demoralization,  by  offering 
to  the  poor  not  alms  but  a  wise  substitute.  Give  the  honest 
poor  but  half  a  chance  and  they  will  surprise  the  skeptical. 


CHICAGO  97 

Loan  a  small  amount  to  a  man  struggling  for  existence, 
let  him  invest  it  in  a  legitimate  occupation,  let  him  byl 
thrift  manage  to  keep  body  and  soul  together;  let  him  at 
the  same  time  repay  the  loan  in  small  installments,  without 
flinching,    and   without   shirking   his   responsibility,    anq. 
what  greater  proof  do  we  require  that  undaunted  courage, 
ambition,  honor,  and  manliness  are  virtues  of  the  poor?/ 
Not  to  annihilate  but  rather  to  preserve  these  sterling  qual 
ities  is  the  mission  of  the  loan  organizations.     Not  only\ 
are  these  societies  educational,  not  only  do  they  stand  for 
preventive  relief,  fostering  self  respect,  but  hundreds  are  | 
annually  spared  the  necessity  of  becoming  the  victims  of  1 
chattel    mortgage    companies,    pawn   brokers    and    money  \ 
lenders.     What  the  contact  of  the  poor  with  the  latter   \ 
agencies  means  needs  no  explanation;  their  unscrupulous  / 
methods,   and  the   hardships   endured  through  them   are/ 
patent  facts. 

The  Russian  Jews  are  a  thrifty  people,  thoroughly  ap 
preciating  the  benefits  accruing  to  them  as  beneficiaries  of 
loan  societies.  The  borrower  soon  realizes  that  the  loan 
organization  is  to  him  no  more  nor  less  than  a  savings 
bank,  where  the  original  amount  is  loaned  to  him  with  the 
privilege  of  borrowing  it  again  when  it  has  been  repaid. 
Thus,  each  time  he  pays  his  small  weekly  installment,  he 
is  saving  so  much  out  of  his  earnings  for  his  particular 
use  at  some  future  day.  It  is  this  advantage  that  accounts 
for  the  prompt  returns  on  money  loaned  and  the  fact 
that  fully  95  per  cent,  of  all  money  so  loaned  is  promptly 
repaid. 

In  the  Chicago  Ghetto,  along  the  Jefferson  Street  mar 
kets,  as  well  as  throughout  the  entire  district,  there  are 
comparatively  few  of  the  peddlers,  vendors,  and  keepers 
of  small  stands  and  shops,  who  have  not  been  given  a  start 
in  life  or  helped  over  rugged  places  by  loans  from  local 
organizations.  Many  confess  that  it  is  this  opportunity 
of  periodically  borrowing  money  that  has  saved  them  from 
absolute  need.  It  is  marvelous  that  the  poorest  of  the 
poor,  physically  weakened  from  suffering  and  privation, 
herded  together  like  animals,  seemingly  without  the  neces 
sities  of  life,  with  homes  barren  of  the  most  ordinary  com 
forts,  can  have  the  courage  to  borrow  money  and  return  it 
as  they  do  dollar  for  dollar.  It  Js. gratifying  to  see  many 
slowly,  very  slowly,  creeping  up  from  urgent  distress  to 


98  PHILANTHROPY 

comparative  comfort  without  the  loss  of  self  respect  and 
with  the  ennobling  conviction  that  they  are  meeting  their 
obligations  honestly. 

The  business  method  in  vogue  in  all  the  loan  societies  is 
more  or  less  uniform.  Loans  are  made  in  purely  a  business 
way.  Each  borrower  gives  his  note,  indorsed  by  a  reliable 
guarantor.  He  borrows  the  money  with  the  knowledge 
that  he  must  repay  it.  All  loans  are  returned  in  weekly 
payments.  The  work  in  connection  with  the  societies  is 
voluntary,  no  paid  officers  being  employed.  The  reliability 
of  guarantors  is  always  inquired  into,  and  most  of  the 
societies  investigate  the  needs  of  the  borrowers.  This  is 
necessary  in  order  to  prevent  fraud  and  the  borrowing  of 
money  as  a  subterfuge  for  obtaining  alms,  or  for  purposes 
not  consistent  with  the  objects  of  the  organizations. 

The  capital  of  these  societies  is  altogether  about  $15,000. 
The  entire  amount  is  reloaned  about  three  times  annually, 
the  sum  of  about  $45,000  being  actually  placed  at  the  dis 
posal  of  borrowers  during  a  year's  time.  In  most  societies 
loans  are  returnable  in  ten  installments.  The  Woman's 
Loan  Association  allows  twenty  weeks.  About  fifteen 
weeks  is  the  average  time  for  repayment  in  full.  It  can 
therefore  be  readily  seen  that  the  original  capital  of 
$15,000  is  loaned  at  least  three  times  during  a  year.  The 
loans  are  usually  for  amounts  of  $10,  $15,  or  $20,  and  up 
to  $100  or  more.  Probably  not  less  than  one  thousand 
persons  avail  themselves  of  the  offices  of  these  societies. 

The  financial  standing  of  the  guarantor  is  not  so  grave  a 
consideration  as  might  be  inferred  from  the  fact  that  his 
signature  to  a  note  makes  him  liable  for  payment,  in  case 
the  borrower  fails  to  meet  his  obligation.  An  honest  bor 
rower  is  more  desirable  than  the  wealthiest  guarantor.  In 
cases  where  a  man  has  made  his  payments  promptly,  so 
that  his  integrity  and  sense  of  honor  have  been  established, 
a  second  signature  becomes  a  matter  of  form.  There  are 
many  instances  where  both  borrower  and  guarantor  are 
equally  poor,  yet  equally  honest.  Ordinarily,  it  is  not  the 
well-to-do  that  act  as  guarantors.  The  shopkeeper  with 
an  established  trade,  or  the  owner  of  a  small  tenement, 
regardless  of  encumbrances,  are  the  ones  who  stand  ready 
to  confer  a  favor  upon  the  needy.  The  risk  is  small.  The 
poor  realize  fully  that  the  guarantor  is  a  friend  in  the 
hour  of  need  and  that  it  is  necessary  to  keep  faith  with 
him. 


CHICAGO  99 

The  Woman's  Loan  Association,  composed  of  about  fifty 
prominent  Russian  Jewish  women,  claims  to  be  the  only 
organization  of  its  kind  managed  entirely  by  women. 
Only  women  are  accepted  as  active  members,  and  all  busi 
ness  is  transacted  by  them.  Records  of  its  work  are  kept 
and  a  thorough  investigation  is  made  of  all  applicants  for 
loans,  and  of  the  financial  standing  of  the  guarantors. 
The  Bureau  of  Personal  Service  furnishes  the  investigators. 
The  loan  committee  meets  at  its  office  every  Monday  even 
ing  from  7:30  to  10:30  for  the  transaction  of  business. 
Not  a  single  loan  was  lost  in  the  first  three  years  that  the 
association  was  at  work. 

In  the  fall  of  1893,  the  first  steps  were  taken  in  the  Chi 
cago  Ghetto  to  introduce  this  most  creditable  form  of 
philanthropy. 

While  at  times  alms  are  absolutely  necessary,  through 
lack  of  forethought  or  failure  to  make  adequate  provision, 
a  relief  organization  is  often  responsible  for  implanting 
habits  that  only  too  frequently  become  a  menace  to  self 
respect.  Many  applicants  for  relief  could  be  educated  to 
a  higher  standard  of  accepting  help.  Where  the  question 
of  relief  alone  is  considered,  those  who  have  become  hard 
ened  to  asking  aid  and  those  who,  on  the  contrary,  are  pain 
fully  conscious  of  being  forced  to  apply  for  alms,  are  com 
pelled  to  knock  alike  at  the  same  door  and  pass  through  the 
same  ordeal.  Under  such  circumstances,  even  the  sensi 
tively  inclined  cannot  be  spared  certain  humiliating  experi 
ences  in  their  relations  with  relief  societies. 


IV 

ECONOMIC  AND  INDUSTRIAL 
CONDITION 


ECONOMIC  AND  INDUSTKIAL 
CONDITION 

(A)  NEW  YORK 

By  the  somewhat  loose  phrase,  "  economic  condition/' 
we  usually  designate  the  condition  of  distribution  of 
wealth.  By  "  industrial  condition,"  a  term  equally  indefi 
nite,  the  modes  of  acquisition  of  wealth  are  usually  meant, 
the  trades,  the  professions,  the  various  kinds  of  economic 
activities.  Though  far  from  being  scientifically  correct, 
these  definitions  will  be  found  available  for  the  practical 
purposes  of  this  short  study.  Our  subject,  then,  is  the 
methods  and  results  of  production  and  distribution  of 
wealth  in  a  large  section  of  the  cosmopolitan  population 
of  our  metropolitan  city. 

Economic  science  knows  but  one  satisfactory  method  for 
such  a  study  —  the  statistical  method.  Only  by  means  of 
measurements  can  the  quantitative  relations  be  determined ; 
and  the  problem  of  wealth  production,  and,  still  more,  of 
wealth  distribution  is  primarily  a  quantitative  problem. 
Yet  in  the  whole  mass  of  American  statistical  publications 
hardly  any  data  can  be  found  which  would  throw  the 
faintest  light  upon  our  problem.  From  purely  scientific 
considerations,  it  is  to  be  regretted  that  the  factor  of  re 
ligion  is  omitted  from  our  census  statistics  however  justified 
such  omission  might  have  been  by  reason  of  policy.  We 
are  not  even  aware  of  the  exact  size  of  the  Jewish  colony 
in  New  York,  and  the  guess  at  600,000  made  by  Joseph 
Jacobs,1  though  based  upon  sound  statistical  principles,  is 
still  but  a  rough  guess.  The  difficulties  increase  a  hundred 
fold  if  out  of  the  whole  Jewish  population  the  Russian 
Jews  are  to  be  differentiated.  And  if  our  knowledge  is  so 
very  limited  in  regard  to  this  one  item  of  population,  how 
much  more  difficult  must  it  be  to  deal  with  the  problem 
which  we  have  attempted  to  touch  upon. 

1  Jewish  World,  August  17,  1902. 

102 


NEW  YOEK  103 

As  the  first  steps  toward  a  scientific  solution  of  this 
problem  still  have  to  be  made,  general  observations  and 
impressions,  always  subjective,  always  more  or  less  biased, 
must  take  the  place  of  careful  and  accurate  scientific  data. 
The  widest  differences  in  these  impressions  must  be  ex 
pected.  Many  a  charitable  Jew  or  Christian  has  seen  in 
the  great  New  York  Ghetto  nothing  but  a  huge  collection 
of  misery  and  poverty.  On  the  other  hand,  a  Canadian 
observer1  has  come  to  a  different  conclusion:  "  The  Jews 
are  about  one  eightieth  of  the  population,  yet  they  claim 
115  out  of  the  4,000  millionaires  of  the  country,  about 
two  and  a  half  times  as  many  as  they  are  entitled  to. 
.  .  .  The  business  of  the  successful  ones  extends  from 
banking  to  pork-packing,  from  realty  to  dry  goods,  from 
distilleries  to  cotton." 

What  is  the  truth?  If  we  give  an  earnest  thought  to 
the  economic  condition  of  the  New  York  Jews,  the  very 
first  conclusion  to  which  we  must  come  is  that  there  are 
wide  differences  in  the  condition  of  different  groups  - 
social  contrasts,  if  you  will  —  a  characteristic  feature  of 
^American  life  in  general.  It  may  or  it  may  not  be  true 
that  the  Jews  have  a  larger  percentage  of  millionaires  than 
they  are  statistically  entitled  to.2  Glancing  through  the  list 
of  American  millionaires  which  the  World  Almanac  has 
published,  we  will  come  across  many  a  Jewish  name;  and* 
yet,  very  few  names,  if  any,  that  have  an  "  ovitch  "  or 
* i  etsky  ' '  at  the  end.  While  there  are  a  considerable  num 
ber  of  Jews  among  the  "  haute  finance  "  of  New  York, 
scarcely  a  Russian  Jew  has  yet  succeeded  in  entering  these 
exclusive  circles. 

With  all  that,  the  Russian  Jewish  population  in  New 
York  is  far  from  being  the  uniform  mass  that  it  appears 
to  a  superficial  observer.  It  is  true  that  for  more  than 
twenty  years  a  uniform  stream  of  poverty-stricken  Russian 
Jews  has  flowed  to  New  York  —  but  we  must  not  forget 
that  the  process  began  more  than  twenty  years  ago  and 

1  Beckles  Willson,  The  New  America,  p.  172. 

2  Personally,    I    doubt   the   statement.     First,   Mr.    Beckles  Willson   has   given 
us  no  indication  of  his  sources.     Secondly,  he  has  left  a  very  important  point 
entirely    out    of    consideration, —  that    millionaires    are    only    found    amidst    the 
population  of  cities.     If  only  the  33.1  per  cent,  of  the  American  people  which 
live  in  the  cities  are  counted  then  the  Jews  represent  not  1/80,  but  3/80  of  the 
American    people,    or    150/4,000,    while    their    millionaires    are    only    115/4,000. 
It  is  needless  to   add,   however,   that  all   such  statistics,  which  are  based  upon 
guesses,  are  more  than  worthless;  they  are  absurd. 


104       ECONOMIC  AND  INDUSTEIAL  CONDITION 

that  social  differentiation  has  had  time  to  work  upon  the 
early  comers.  Almost  every  newly  arrived  Russian  Jewish 
laborer  cames  into  contact  with  a  Russian  Jewish  employer, 
almost  every  Russian  Jewish  tenement  dweller  must  pay 
his  exorbitant  rent  to  a  Russian  Jewish  landlord.  It  is 
almost  certain  that  both  have  originally  come  from  the 
same  social  stratum  —  for  the  rich  Russian  Jewish  immi 
grant  was  an  exception,  so  rare  as  to  be  almost  statistically 
negligible, —  both  at  present  represent  two  aspects  of  the 
same  "  economic  condition."  It  is  extremely  probable 
that  at  present  the  majority  of  Russian  Jewish  workers 
work  for  Russian  Jewish  employers. 

On  the  one  hand,  the  ordinary  business  profits  of  manu 
facture  and  commerce,  on  the  other  the  "  unearned  incre 
ment  "  in  the  value  of  real  estate,  have  facilitated  the 
growth  of  a  very  large  and  tolerably  prosperous  Russian 
Jewish  middle  class  in  New  York.  If  there  are  no 
"  ovitches  "  and  "  etskys  "  in  the  list  of  American  mil 
lionaires,  there  are  numbers  of  them  in  evidence  on  the 
Broadway  windows  and  elsewhere.  A  large  proportion  of 
the  great  New  York  clothing  industry  (including  the 
manufacturing  of  white  goods)  is  in  Russian  Jewish  hands, 
as  well  as  a  fair  proportion  of  the  trading  in  these  goods, 
both  wholesale  and  retail.  Many  other  lines  of  commerce 
and  manufacturing  have  attracted  Russian  Jewish  hands, 
brains  and  money;  yet  the  needle  industries  so  called,  and 
their  accessories,  have  remained  the  great  field  of  Russian 
Jewish  business  activity  in  New  York. 

The  years  (1898-1903)  of  unprecedented  business  activ 
ity  and  "  prosperity  "  for  the  United  States,  caused  an 
unusually  brisk  demand  for  the  products  of  this  Jewish  in 
dustry  ;  and  the  growth  of  Russian  Jewish  fortunes  in  New 
York  has  been  the  immediate  result  of  this  demand. 
Though  we  have  no  income  statistics  on  which  to  base  our 
suppositions,  there  can  be  not  the  slightest  doubt  that  many 
fortunes,  ranging  between  $25,000  and  $200,000,  have  been 
made  within  these  years.  It  was  but  natural  that  these  ex 
traordinary  incomes  should  have  been  invested  in  real 
estate,  and  the  phenomenal  growth  of  the  so-called  Ghetto, 
which  has  earned  the  adjective  "  great  "  (used  very  fre 
quently  without  the  slightest  suggestion  of  sarcasm),  has 
had  much  to  do  with  the  formation  of  a  number  of  fortunes. 
To  one  who  has  had  an  opportunity  to  watch  the  economic 
development  of  the  district  south  of  Houston  Street,  the 


NEW  YOEK  105 

formation  of  a  well-to-do  class  in  the  midst  of  the  Russian 
Jewish  colony  has  been  a  very  interesting  phenomenon. 
The  general  improvement  in  the  character  of  the  stores, 
the  sudden  appearance  of  a  dozen  or  more  commercial 
banks,  the  well-furnished  cafes  of  a  type  utterly  unknown 
five  or  six  years  ago,  the  modern  apartments  "  with  an  ele 
vator  and  a  '  nigger  boy  '  on  the  stoop  "  all  tell  eloquently 
of  this  growth.  In  the  show  windows  of  small  street  stores, 
specimens  of  furniture  have  appeared  which  would  not  be 
out  of  place  in  many  an  uptown  residence.  One  might  say 
that  some  of  the  streets,  lined  with  fine  old  buildings, 
are  retracing  the  steps  in  their  history.  Inhabited  by  the 
"  best  people  "  many  years  ago,  they  have  gradually  be 
come  the  abode  of  some  of  the  poorest.  And  now  poverty 
is  forced  to  fly  into  other  streets  and  even  other  quarters, 
to  give  space  to  this  rising  middle  class.  Many  a  Jewish 
family  has  moved  uptown,  because  it  could  not  afford  the 
exorbitant  rents  demanded  by  the  Ghetto  landlords  and 
Ghetto  conditions. 

Yet  the  Ghetto,  where  so  many  of  these  Jewish  fortunes 
are  made,  is  not  the  only  place  where  the  incomes  derived 
are  spent.  If  the  new  conditions  have  driven  many  a  poor 
family  out  of  the  Ghetto,  they  have  also  forced  the  migra 
tion  of  the  richer  class.  The  possession  of  a  larger  income 
has  opened  the  eyes  of  many  a  Russian  Jewish  family  to 
the  negative  qualities  of  "  downtown  life  "  which  before 
had  been  considered  a  necessary  part  of  Russian  Jewish  ex 
istence  in  America.  The  monopoly  of  "  uptown  life," 
which  the  German  Jew  was  supposed  to  hold,  has  gradually 
given  way.  Hundreds  and  thousands  of  families  have 
started  northward  in  an  effort  to  be  as  good  as  their  Ger 
man  cousins.  Lexington  Avenue,  the  abode  of  the  German 
Jew,  became  the  ideal  of  the  Russian  Jew  as  well.  Grad 
ually  as  the  Russian  Jewish  colony  on  this  thoroughfare 
and  the  tributary  streets  grew  larger,  and  the  exclusive 
character  of  this  neighborhood  disappeared,  a  further  mi 
gration  westward  was  started ;  the  noble  thoroughfare  which 
divides  our  great  metropolitan  city  into  the  "  elite  "  and 
the  "  plebes  "  was  finally  crossed,  until  to-day  more  Rus 
sian  is  spoken  west  of  Fifth  and  Sixth  Avenues  than  was 
heard  on  East  Broadway  ten  years  ago.  There  is  no  doubt 
that  these  fairly  well-to-do  Russian  families  in  New  York 
reach  scores  of  thousands. 

It  certainly  is  not  ready-made  clothing  and  dry  goods 


106       ECONOMIC  AND  INDUSTRIAL  CONDITION 

alone  that  have  brought  about  this  prosperity  in  a  part  of 
the  Russian  Jewish  population.  The  jewelry  business,  the 
liquor  business,  to  a  limited  extent,  and  the  drug  business, 
to  a  much  greater  extent,  have  all  contributed  to  the  same 
end.  New  York  Jews  have  come  to  play  a  very  important 
part  in  the  theatrical  business,  but  outside  of  Yiddish  thea 
tres  and  music  halls,  within  the  limits  of  the  Ghetto,  the 
Russian  Jews  have  hardly  entered  this  field. 

It  is  a  characteristic  phenomenon  of  Russian  Jewish  life 
in  New  York  that  professions  have  formed  as  important  a 
basis  of  prosperity  as  business,  and  perhaps  even  a  larger 
one.  Some  snug  little  fortunes  and  an  enormous  number 
of  comfortable  incomes  (a  term  of  considerable  latitude,  it 
is  to  be  admitted)  have  been  and  are  now  derived  from 
what  we  define  as  professional  work,  and  though  we  have  no 
statistics,  we  can  safely  make  the  statement  that  no  other 
element  of  New  York  population  has  so  large  a  percentage 
of  professional  people  as  the  Jews.  The  German  Jews 
would  probably  show  a  higher  percentage  than  the  Russian 
Jews,  for  the  former  lack  the  enormous  working  class.  If, 
however,  we  were  to  exclude  the  workingmen  and  consider 
the  middle  class  only,  the  German  and  Russian  Jews  would 
have  to  change  their  places,  as  the  educated  and  well-to-do 
German  Jew  takes  much  more  readily  to  business. 
\  We  cannot  stop  to  consider  at  length  the  why  and  where 
fore  of  this  phenomenon;  an  interesting  problem  it  un 
doubtedly  is.  The  love  and  respect  of  the  Russian  Jew  for 
education  —  unique  in  view  of  his  economic  condition  in 
the  old  country  —  is  one  of  its  positive  causes.  A  certain 
contempt  for  manual  labor,  noticed  among  a  considerable 
number  of  Russian  Jews  —  a  sad  but  inevitable  result  of 
an  enforced  commercial  life  —  is  a  cause  much  less  praise 
worthy.  It  is  needless  to  point  out  how  quickly  this  con 
tempt  vanishes  under  new  surroundings,  for,  after  all,  the 
vast  majority  of  the  Russian  Jewish  immigrants  become 
and  remain  manual  workers.  Be  this  as  it  may,  it  is  a  well 
known  fact  that  the  Russian  Jewish  element  is  largely 
represented  in  the  professions  of  medicine,  law,  dentistry, 
engineering. 

Medicine  has  remained  one  of  the  favorite  professions. 

The  laxity  of  entrance  requirements,  the  awe  of  a  doctor's 

.  title  the  Russian  Jew  brings  from  the  old  country,  and  the 

}  easy  success  of  the  older  members  of  the  profession  have 

(all   contributed  toward  the   popularity   of   this  vocation, 


NEW  YORK  107 


Probably,  from  .four  himdrad  to  six  hundred  of  the 
seven  thousand  physicians  in  gr.eater.JNew  York  are  Rus 
sian  Jews.  Though  of  late  symptoms  of  over-supply  in  the 
market  have  been  noticed,  the  influx  into  the  profession 
does  not  show  any  signs  of  abatement.  The  economic 
status  of  the  majority  is  fair;  many  older  members  are 
well-to-do.  In  the  real  estate  business  of  the  East  Side  the 
medical  man  plays  a  part  by  no  means  unimportant.  The 
dentists,  less  numerous,  are  much  more  prosperous.  In  the 
legal  profession,  on  the  contrary,  the  Russians  cannot  boast 
of  any  great  success,  either  financial  or  otherwise.  Phar 
macy,  on  the  border  line  between  profession  and  business, 
has  also  attracted  a  large  number  of  Russian  youths,  but 
the  returns  are  far  less  satisfactory  than  those  of  the  other 
occupations. 

The  teaching  profession  has  probably  provided  a 
livelihood  for  more  Jewish  families  than  the  others  which 
we  have  enumerated.  For  obvious  reasons,  only  the  second 
generation,  i.e.,  those  born  on  the  American  soil,  or  those 
who  had  emigrated  at  a  very  early  age,  are  fit  for  the  pro 
fession;  but  it  will  certainly  be  a  revelation  to  many  an 
American  to  learn  how  many  Russian  Jewish  young  men 
and  girls  are  doing  this  work  of  "  Americanization,"  not 
only  of  Jewish,  but  of  Irish,  German,  and  Italian  children. 
There  is  no  doubt  that  the  Jews  have  supplied  a  greater 
proportion  of  public  school  teachers  than  either  the  Ger 
mans  or  the  Italians.  The  profession  has  never  been  a  road 
to  fortune ;  yet  with  the  latest  salary  schedule,  a  very  com 
fortable  living  has  been  provided  for  several  thousand  fam 
ilies. 

The  important  position  which  the  Russian  Jew  occupies 
in  the  professions  of  New  York  City  is  more  significant 
because  he  entered  them  but  a  short  time  since.  Ten  years 
ago,  a  Russian  Jewish  journalist1  found  only  a  few  dozen 
representatives  of  his  race  in  medicine  and  law,  a  few  in 
dividuals  in  dentistry,  and  hardly  any  in  the  teaching  pro 
fession,  or  in  municipal  service.  These  dozens  have  grown 
into  hundreds,  and  even  thousands,  within  the  following 
decade.  With  a  remarkable  display  of  energy  and  enter 
prise,  the  Russian  Jew  was  ready  to  grasp  the  opportunity 
whenever  and  wherever  it  presented  itself.  No  wonder, 
then,  that  the  professions  soon  began  to  feel  the  effects  of 

1  Dr.  Price.  The  Russian  Jew  in  America  (in  Russian).  St.  Petersburg, 
1891, 


108     ECONOMIC  AND  INDUSTRIAL  CONDITION 

this  influx.  The  extraordinary  profits  of  the  pioneer  have 
vanished.  At  the  same  time  the  necessary  increase  in  the 
stringency  of  the  laws  regulating  professional  work  has 
very  wisely  cut  off  the  possibility  of  entering  a  profession 
to  many  who  were  unprepared  for  it. 

While  the  economic  significance  of  the  facts  passed  under 
review  cannot  be  denied,  it  is  evident  that  business  and 
professional  classes  make  up  only  a  small  percentage  of  the 
Russian  Jewish  population  of  New  York  City  —  much 
smaller,  indeed,  than  of  the  German  Jews. 

The  vast  majority  of  the  Russian  Jews  are  on  a  much 
lower  economic  level.  They  belong  to  the  "  masses,"  as 
against  the  "  classes."  The  cause  will  be  easily  under- 
l  stood  if  we  remember  that  the  average  Russian  Jewish  im- 
\  migrant  brings  the  magnificent  capital  of  $8  into  this  coun 
try,  while  the  average  non-Jewish  immigrant  is  the  happy 
possessor  of  double  that  fortune. 

Within  these  ' '  masses  ' '  industrial  labor  of  various  kinds 
is  the  main  source  of  livelihood.  The  New  York  Russian 
Jew  is  a  wage  worker,  notwithstanding  the  numerous  ex- 
v  ceptions  to  the  rule.  The  examples  of  wage-workers  of 
yesterday  changing  into  employers  of  labor  almost  over 
night  are  many.  Lately  these  examples  have  been  rapidly 
multiplying  with  the  remarkable  changes  going  on  within 
the  clothing  industry  —  a  process  of  decentralization,  due 
to  the  legislative  difficulties  put  in  the  way  of  the  domestic 
system,  which  was  the  backbone  of  the  clothing  industry 
some  years  ago.  In  1900,  New  York  state  had  more  than 
4,000  establishments  for  manufacture  of  clothings,  most  of 
them  in  New  York  City,  and  a  very  large  proportion  in 
Russian  Jewish  hands.  Yet  the  number  of  these  proprie 
tors  is  insignificant  in  comparison  with  more  than  100,000 
workers  in  this  same  industry  in  the  same  state.  The 
vast  majority  of  the  newcomers  also  join  this  industrial 
army,  in  this  as  well  as  other  branches  of  manufacturing. 
The  question  of  the  economic  condition  of  the  Russian  Jew 
iu  New  York  is  therefore  pre-eminently  the  question  of 
wages,  hours,  and  conditions  of  labor  in  general. 

The  predominance  of  industrial  laborers  in  a  social 
group  that  long  had  the  reputation  of  being  fit  for  com 
mercial  life  only  is  striking.  The  Russian  Jews  in  their 
own  country  are  largely  engaged  in  commercial  occupations 
into  which  they  were  forced  many  decades  ago.  It  was 
but  natural  that  the  first  immigrants  of  the  eighties  contin- 


NEW  YORK  109 

ued  here  in  the  same  channels.  Hence  the  extreme  popu 
larity  of  the  peddler's  basket,  which  has  helped  to  sup 
port  many  a  hungry  family  and  has  laid  the  foundation 
for  snug  little  fortunes  to  be  invested  in  larger  ventures. 
Within  the  last  twenty  years  the  change  has  been  remark 
able —  in  New  York  and  a  few  other  large  cities,  more 
than  in  the  rest  of  the  country  whither  a  few  Russian  Jews 
have  wandered.  Ordinary  door-to-door  peddling  has  de 
generated  into  begging  in  its  lower  forms ;  in  its  ' '  higher 
form  of  custom-peddling  it  approaches  a  mild  form  of 
swindling,  and  whatever  the  lucrative  properties  of  the 
occupation,  the  social  standing  of  its  members  is  far  lower 
than  that  of  common  every-day  wage  workers. 

Whatever  we  may  think  of  the  practical  advantages  or 
disadvantages  of  the  concentration  of  the  clothing  indus 
try  in  Jewish  hands,  its  scientific  value  cannot  be  denied. 
Here  we  have  an  industry  so  thoroughly  Jewish  (in  New 
York)  and  with  the  Russian  Jew  predominating  so  strong 
ly  that  the  statistical  data  of  the  clothing  industry  cannot 
but  reflect  the  conditions  of  the  Russian  Jewish  worker  in 
New  York. 

The  objection  may  certainly  be  raised  that  the  data  con 
cerning  this  industry  tell  us  only  of  that  part  of  the  Rus 
sian  Jewish  colony  which  is  employed  in  tailoring,  and  this 
part,  no  matter  how  large,  is  still  considerably  smaller  than 
the  whole.  This  objection  must  be  sustained  if  we  desire 
Bcientific  accuracy.  But,  on  the  other  hand,  a  tendency 
toward  the  leveling  of  wages  in  various  related  industries 
cannot  be  denied;  the  entrance  into  the  tailoring  industry 
is  not  obstructed  by  difficulties  of  a  technical  or  legal  na 
ture.  It  must  be  admitted,  therefore,  that  there  is  no  eco 
nomic  ground  for  considering  the  condition  of  the  Russian 
Jewish  tailor  exceptionally  high  as  compared  with  the 
worker  of  the  same  nationality  in  other  industrial  branches. 
The  average  earnings  of  the  tailor  will  be  nearer  the  bot 
tom  than  the  top. 

According  to  the  Twelfth  Census1  there  have  been  em 
ployed  in  the  various  branches  of  the  clothing  industry  of 
the  United  States,  over  half  a  million  wage  earners,  more 
than  30,000  salaried  men,  in  addition  to  probably  more 
than  50,000  proprietors  (though  the  number  is  not  given 
of  48,497  establishments).  The  value  of  the  production 

1Vol.   IX,  pp.   259-302. 


110       ECONOMIC  AND  INDUSTRIAL  CONDITION 

amounted  to  $804,509,370.  If  we  consider  the  factory 
production  of  clothing  exclusively,  we  shall  have  205,631 
wage  earners  and  products  having  a  value  of  $431,881,748. 
Out  of  this,  New  York  state  shows  an  enormous  share,  more 
than  one-half  of  the  total  American  industry  —  90,519 
wage  workers  and  $233,721,653  of  products.  These  figures 
tell  an  eloquent  story  of  the  magnitude  of  the  commercial 
interests  represented  by  the  Jew,  and  primarily  the  Rus 
sian  Jew. 

The  statistical  data  of  the  clothing  industry  in  the  city 
of  New  York,  especially  interests  us  at  this  moment.  Com 
bining  the  data  for  all  the  clothing  industry  proper,  men's 
as  well  as  women's,  factory  work  as  well  as  custom  work 
and  repairing,  we  find  in  New  York  City1  8,266  establish 
ments  with  a  capital  of  $78,387,849;  90,950  workingmen; 
and  a  value  of  products  of  $239,879,414.  So  much  for  the 
extent  of  the  clothing  industry.  If  we  consider  that  twenty 
years  ago  the  capital  invested  in  this  industry  throughout 
the  country  was  only  $88,068,969,  or  hardly  more  than  the 
present  share  of  New  York  City  alone,  the  results  of  the 
industrial  activity  of  the  New  York  Jews  will  be  appreci 
ated. 

The  following  tables  will,  it  is  hoped,  be  found  both  in 
teresting  and  instructive: 

AVERAGE  WEEKLY  WAGES  (1900) 

CHIL- 

MEN    WOMEN  DREN 
American  manufactures  in  general.  .$  9.82     $5.46     $3.04 

Men's  clothing,  factory  product 11.36       5.08       2.75 

Women's  clothing,  factory  product..   12.10      5.86      3.14 

We  should  not  trust  wage  statistics  implicitly.  Yet  if 
these  data,  calculated  from  official  tables,  mean  anything, 
they  indicate  that  the  economic  position  of  the  Jewish 
worker  in  the  clothing  trade,  while  not  at  the  top,  is  surely 
not  at  the  bottom  of  the  American  working  class,  as  his 
wages  are  considerably  above  the  average.  Let  us  continue 
our  investigation  a  little  further,  and  compare  the  clothing 
trade  in  New  York  with  manufactures  in  general  in  the 
same  city. 

1  Twelfth  Census,  Vol.  VIII,  p.  622. 


NEW  YOBK  111 

Taking  the  average  of  264  specified  industries  in  New 
York,1  we  obtain  the  following  data : 

AVERAGE  WAGES,  WORKERS  IN  NEW  YORK 

CHIL- 
MEN    WOMEN  DREN 

Manufactures     $12.38     $6.42     $3.36 

Men's  clothing,  factory  product 12.26       6.34       2.94 

Womens'  clothing,  factory  product..   12.62       6.86       3.72 

Again,  this  table  corroborates  the  conclusions  we  reached 
from  the  previous  figures.  The  close  correspondence  of 
these  figures  is  no  mere  coincidence.  It  conclusively  shows 
that  the  Jewish  trades  are  not  below  the  average  even  in 
New  York,  where  wages  are  higher,  because  living  is  dearer 
and  labor  better  organized  than  in  many  other  industrial 
communities. 

The  foregoing  figures  are  based  upon  the  Federal  Cen 
sus.  A  study  of  another  authority,  the  reports  of  the  New 
York  Bureau  of  Statistics  of  Labor,  seems  to  lead  to  dif 
ferent  conclusions.  In  the  tables  of  average  wages,  which 
this  bureau  publishes  yearly,  the  wages  in  the  clothing  and 
tobacco  industries  appear  among  the  lowest.  Mention  of 
this  fact  is  made  because  the  statistics  of  the  Department 
of  Labor  are  very  popular  with  the  New  York  press.  In 
vestigation  reveals  the  fact  that  only  the  wages  of  union 
trades  are  here  enumerated,  i.e.,  of  the  best  paying,  we 
might  say  "  aristocratic  "  branches  of  labor.  Of  course, 
the  average  Jewish  workman  has  not  yet  reached  the  stand 
ard  of  the  highly  paid  American  union  mechanic.  But 
in  the  vast  majority  of  cases  his  condition  is  much  above 
that  of  the  ignorant  laborer. 

Ordinary  observation  will  corroborate  the  conclusions 
drawn  from  statistical  tables.  If  we  disregard  for  the 
present  the  very  new  arrival,  who  usually  falls  into  the 
clutches  of  the  most  unscrupulous  employer,  whether  of 
Jewish  faith  or  any  other  faith,  the  condition  of  the  aver- 
age  Jewish  tailor  is  not  so  hopelessly  bad  as  many  pessi 
mists  would  make  us  believe.  It  is  undoubtedly  better 
than  the  condition  of  those  of  his  brethren  whom  he  leaves 
behind  in  the  old  country.  If  it  were  not  so  we  should 
have  no  constantly  growing  stream  of  immigration.  This 

1  Twelfth  Census,  Vol.  VIII,  pp.  625-28. 


112       ECONOMIC  AND  1NDUSTEIAL  CONDITION 

is  a  matter  of  course.  But  what  is  more  noteworthy  is 
that  his  general  standard  of  life  is  much  above  that  of 
many  other  nationalities  of  the  population  of  New  York 
City.  He  may  not  have  the  taste,  the  style,  the  general 
"  savoir  vivre  "  so  characteristic  of  the  American  work- 
ingman.  Not  only  does  he  earn  less,  but  his  wife  has  not 
been  instilled  with  the  same  training  of  cleanliness  and 
neatness  which  characterizes  the  American  women.  On 
the  side  of  expenditure  as  well  as  income,  the  Jewish  tailor 
has  much  to  learn  from  the  American;  aesthetically,  his 
home  is  much  below  the  average  American  home.  On  the 
other  hand,  he  is  free  in  the  majority  of  cases  from  those 
faults  of  wastefulness  and  dissipation  which  characterize 
many  Irish,  Italian,  and  sometimes  even  German  working- 
men;  and  his  home  has  many  claims  to  comfort  and  well- 
being.  The  ordinary,  busy  Jewish  tailor  keeps  a  fairly 
good  table,  has  a  parlor  with  a  parlor  set  of  furniture,  and 
is  able  to  indulge  in  an  occasional  visit  to  the  Jewish  thea 
tre. 

The  following  table  will  show  how  prevalent  the  needle 
industries  are  among  the  Russian  Jews  in  New  York: 

MEN      WOMEN      TOTAL 

Dressmakers    314  1,948  2,262 

Hat  and  cap  makers 278  298  576 

Milliners    68  668  736 

Seamstresses   1,286  4,021  5,307 

Sewing  machine  operatives 273  273 

Shirt,  collar  and  cuff  makers 1,043  509  1,552 

Tailors   20,323  3,304  23,627 


Total  in  needle  trades 23,312  11,021  34,333 

Total   in  manufacturing   and  me 
chanical  pursuits 44,160  14,362  58,522 

Per  cent,  in  needle  trades 52.8  76.8  58.6 

Thus,  almost  53  per  cent,  of  male  Russian  Jewish  work 
ers  and  77  per  cent,  female  are  employed  in  the  needle  in 
dustries.  There  are  also  hundreds  of  "  non- Jewish  " 
trades,  in  which,  nevertheless,  scores  of  Russian  Jewish 
working-men  can  be  found.  Such  are  plumbing,  cabinet- 
making,  paper-hanging,  mirror-framing,  printing,  engrav 
ing,  and  many  others.  As  is  shown  in  the  above  table,  how 
ever,  the  majority  are  still  allied  to  the  needle  trades,  and 


NEW  YOEK  113 

it  remains  true  that  the  needle  has  saved  the  Russian  Jew 
in  New  York.  This  tendency  to  enter  other  industries  will 
be  more  noticed  in  the  future  than  in  the  past.  Especial 
ly  is  this  true  of  the  second  generation,  the  American  born 
Russian  Jews:  they  are  free  from  those  conditions  which 
have  forced  their  parents  along  narrower  lines. 

It  is  hardly  necessary  to  prove  that  the  average  wages  in 
these  enumerated  Jewish  trades,  with  the  possible  exception 
of  the  tobacco  industry,  are  not  below  the  wages  in  the 
clothing  trades.  As  a  matter  of  ordinary  observation, 
wages  in  many  of  these  trades,  as  well  as  in  some  branches 
of  the  clothing  industry,  rise  above  $12,  and  often  reach 
over  $20  per  week. 

The  claim  is  often  made  that  while  the  nominal  wages 
of  the  Jewish  tailor  in  the  busy  season  may  be  compara 
tively  high,  his  employment  is  irregular,  and  his  actual 
average  weekly  income  is  much  smaller  than  would  appear 
at  first  sight.  That  there  is  a  great  deal  of  truth  in  this  state 
ment  cannot  be  denied.  The  needle  trades  are  season 
trades  to  a  great  extent,  and,  like  all  other  season  trades, 
are  subject  to  great  irregularity.  While  the  average  em 
ployment  of  the  union  workers  in  all  trades  in  the  first 
quarter  of  1901  was,  according  to  the  New  York  Bureau 
of  Labor  Statistics,  67  days,  in  the  tailoring  trades  it  was 
54  days.  The  difference  is  not  inconsiderable,  but  is  part 
ly  compensated  for  by  the  rush  of  work  and  almost  con 
stant  overtime  during  the  busy  season.  The  overtime  work 
is  interrupted  by  long  breaks,  and  is  usually  paid  for  at  a 
higher  rate.  The  arrangement,  however,  is  one  that  is  by 
no  means  conducive  to  the  health  of  the  Jewish  worker. 
The  enforcement  of  the  ten-hour  day  is  about  as  efficient 
in  the  case  of  Jewish  union  workers  as  in  that  of  most  New 
York  workingmen,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  very  strong 
trades,  the  building  trades  for  example,  which  have  suc 
ceeded  in  reducing  it  below  ten  hours,  and  in  keeping  it 
there. 

The  conclusions  to  which  this  necessarily  brief  statistical 
study  leads  are  almost  too  self-evident  to  require  any 
lengthy  discussion.  As  far  as  the  present  condition  of  the 
Russian  Jew  is  concerned,  we  find  that  in  New  York,  at  all 
events,  it  is  not  below  par.  The  same  differentiation  in 
economic  classes  exists  in  the  Russian  Jewish  colony  as  in 
the  other  elements  of  the  population,  it  being  inevitable  in 
modern  society.  In  the  small  circle  of  millionaires,  our 


114       ECONOMIC  AND  INDUSTRIAL  CONDITION 

Russian  brethren  may  not  have  their  proportionate  quota; 
their  middle  class,  and  what  is  more  important,  their  work 
ing  class,  is  certainly  not  below,  and  possibly  above,  the 
average  level  economically,  especially  above  the  average 
level  of  other  foreign  elements,  such  as  the  Italian,  the 
Irish,  and  the  Austrian.  This  comparatively  satisfactory 
condition  is  the  more  remarkable  when  all  the  great  diffi 
culties  which  the  Russian  Jew  was  forced  to  overcome  are 
taken  into  consideration :  the  poverty  of  the  new  arrival, 
his  lack  of  knowledge  of  any  practical  trade,  his  muscular 
weakness  (as  is  pointed  out  by  Dr.  Fishberg  in  this  vol 
ume).  These  difficulties  cannot  be  denied.  But  only  gross 
ignorance  or  inhuman  cruelty  can  hold  the  Russian  Jew  re 
sponsible  for  such  conditions.  History  shows  that  for 
many  centuries  the  Jews  have  been  forced  away  from  man 
ual  labor  into  commercial  life.  Yet  at  the  first  opportun 
ity,  the  Russian  Jew  became  a  hard  and  patient  industrial 
worker,  and,  let  us  add,  an  extremely  useful  worker.  The 
prime  object  of  this  work  was  necessarily  the  acquisition 
of  means  of  support.  But  the  very  success  of  the  Rus 
sian  Jew  in  attaining  this  object  shows  that  there  was  a 
place  and  demand  for  his  industrial  activity.  The  con 
centration  of  the  Russian  Jewish  population  in  a  few  in 
dustrial  centres  has  long  been  spoken  of  as  an  evident  evil ; 
yet  this  concentration  has  helped  the  Russian  Jew  to  a 
ready  sale  of  his  labor,  and  has  saved  hundreds  of  thou 
sands  from  dependence  upon  charitable  institutions.  It 
is  the  much  abused  needle  and  sewing  machine  that  have 
solved  the  problem  of  how  to  dispose  of  swarms  of  Russian 
Jewish  immigrants.  It  is  the  needle  that  has  revolution 
ized  a  large  and  important  industry  in  which  hundreds  of 
millions  of  dollars  were  invested.  It  is  the  needle  that  has 
contributed  a  share  toward  making  this  city  an  important 
manufacturing  centre  of  the  country,  and  last,  but  not 
least,  it  is  this  Jewish  Russian  needle  that  has  made  the 
American  nation  the  best  dressed  in  the  world. 

It  must  be  acknowledged  that  after  all  is  said  for  or 
against  immigration,  the  fear  of  the  American  working 
class  that  the  immigrant,  with  his  lower  standard  of  life, 
may  reduce  American  wages,  remains  the  greatest  objec 
tion,  nay,  the  only  objection  to  immigration  which  has  a 
certain  validity.  Now,  then,  it  was  to  be  expected  that 
the  Russian  Jew  should  produce  such  an  effect.  What  did 
the  Russian  Jew  who  immigrated  to  America  in  the  eighties 


NEW  YORK  115 

and  early  nineties  know  of  unions  and  demands  for  a  higher 
standard?  The  reader  will  believe  that  I  have  stated 
strongly  the  case  against  the  Kussian  Jewish  worker.  The 
more  remarkable  is  the  progress  the  Russian  Jewish  popu 
lation  has  made  within  the  very  short  period  of  fifteen  or 
twenty  years,  the  progress  which  has  made  the  Russian  Jew 
a  fighter  within  the  ranks  of  the  American  labor  move 
ments  and  a  force  for  the  betterment  of  the  American 
working  class. 

The  report  of  the  Bureau  of  Labor  Statistics  for  1902 
furnishes  the  following  data  as  to  the  membership  for  the 
borough  of  Manhattan  in  the  unions  of  the  clothing  and 
allied  trades,  that  is,  those  specifically  Jewish :  Buttonhole 
makers,  150;  cloakmakers  (this  includes  Brooklyn),  8,000; 
cloth  examiners,  86;  cloth  spongers,  214;  clothing  cutters, 
1,500;  coat  makers,  4,255;  jacket  makers,  350;  kneepants 
makers,  2,206 ;  neckwear  cutters,  230 ;  overall  workers,  49 ; 
pants  makers,  1,800;  pressers,  1,500;  tailors,  1,000;  vest 
makers,  1,550;  wrapper  makers,  839;  cloth  hat  and  cap 
operators,  1,209 ;  shirt  cutters,  315 ;  shirt-waist  makers, 
1,660.  This  is  a  total  of  some  20,000  for  the  borough  of 
Manhattan.  These  numbers  refer  almost  exclusively  to 
Jewish  workers;  there  are,  besides,  many  Jewish  working- 
men  members  of  various  other  unions.  And  if  we  con 
sider  that  the  total  membership  of  unions  in  the  borough 
is  about  150,000,  the  part  Jewish  workers  play  in  the  union 
movement  will  easily  be  appreciated.  It  is  true,  of  course, 
that  these  unions  are  far  inferior  to  the  oldest  American 
unions  in  strength,  that  often  they  are  ephemeral  in  exist 
ence  ;  the  very  ' '  round  ' '  figures  of  the  official  statistics 
are  an  indication  thereof.  Frequently  they  organize  for 
a  particular  occasion,  as  a  great  strike,  only  to  sink  almost 
into  nothingness  as  soon  as  that  particular  purpose  is  ac 
complished.  Their  treasuries  very  seldom,  if  ever,  contain 
large  sums.  It  is  not  surprising,  then,  if  the  opinion  is 
often  expressed  that  the  unions  of  Jewish  tailors  exist  on 
paper  only.  Yet  this  is  far  from  being  the  unbiased  truth. 
The  teachings  of  a  circle  of  enthusiastic  and  energetic  peo 
ple  all  through  the  eighties  have  not  fallen  on  barren 
ground.  There  certainly  exists  collective  bargaining  in  the 
clothing  industry  —  and  that  is  the  most  essential  feature 
of  unionism.  It  is  sufficient  to  talk  to  any  clothing  manu 
facturer  in  New  York,  and  listen  to  his  invocations  against 


116       ECONOMIC  AND  INDUSTRIAL  CONDITION 

the  unions,  to  be  convinced  that  these  unions  are  a  real 
power. 

We  agree  that  the  picture  drawn  above  is  very  optimis 
tic.  It  is  because  it  is  not  complete.  Not  the  whole  of  the 
New  York  clothing  industry  is  in  such  good  condition  as 
to  its  employees,  for  who  has  not  heard  of  the  New  York 
sweatshops  ? 

Of  the  horrors  of  the  sweatshops  so  much  has  been  writ 
ten  and  spoken  that  scarcely  an  intelligent  New  Yorker  can 
be  found  who  is  not  to  some  degree  aware  of  their  evils. 
Private  investigators  as  well  as  authoritative  official  bodies 
have  made  thorough  studies  of  the  situation.  The  peculiar 
conditions  of  the  clothing  industry  which  make  home  work 
and  the  exploitation  of  ignorant  immigrants  so  easy,  have 
facilitated  the  establishment  of  the  system.  The  very 
"  green  "  immigrant  who  knows  nothing  of  the  conditions 
of  the  market  is  an  easy  prey  to  the  sharks  of  his  own  or 
any  other  nationality.  The  subcontracting  system,  once 
established,  was  a  terrible  competitor  to  the  legitimate  fac 
tory. 

To  a  certain  extent,  this  pernicious  system  was  even  ad 
vantageous  to  the  worker.  It  supplied  him  with  a  source 
of  immediate  income  almost  the  day  after  his  arrival;  and 
no  matter  how  small  the  pay,  he  looked  upon  his  employer 
as  his  benefactor.  As  the  pay  was  often  too  small  to  sup 
port  the  large  family  even  in  the  poorest  style,  it  became 
necessary  for  his  wife  and  children  to  join  in  work,  and 
the  "  benefactor,"  with  his  sweatshops,  very  often  an  old 
friend  from  the  old  country,  provided  them  all  with  work. 
It  was  fortunate  that  this  system  extended  only  to  a  few 
"  Jewish  "  industries  and  so  affected  but  little  the  New 
York  workingman  in  productive  employments,  or  the  op 
position  against  the  Jewish  workers  would  have  been 
strong,  and  in  a  measure  justified.  The  sweatshop  is  not 
an  exclusively  Jewish  institution ;  it  has  been,  and  remains, 
very  wide-spread.  Italians  to  a  large  degree  share  it. 

The  sweatshop,  with  its  inevitable  trinity  of  harmful 
consequences, —  low  wages,  long  hours,  and  female  and 
child  labor  —  remains  the  essential  economic  problem  of  the 
Russian  Jewish  population  of  New  York  City,  as  far  as  any 
economic  problem  can  be  national  in  so  cosmopolitan  a  city 
as  New  York.  The  Jewish  unions  have  tried  to  remedy 
the  evil,  but  the  problem  has  proven  too  extensive  for  them. 
It  is  evidently  a  problem  for  general  social  interference, 


NEW  YORK  117 

for  legislative  enactment.  Luckily,  the  sanitary  aspects  of 
the  system  have  proven  so  dangerous  that  solicitude  for 
social  safety  has  made  possible  a  movement  which  consider 
ation  for  the  interests  of  the  poor  immigrants  could  never 
accomplish.  The  numerous  laws  against  sweatshops  en 
acted  of  late  in  New  York,  as  well  as  in  Boston  and  Phila 
delphia,  though  far  from  being  decisive  in  their  influence, 
have  yet  had  some  beneficial  result.  The  movement  must 
grow  in  force,  if  the  final  aim  —  the  transformation  of  the 
home  industry  into  a  factory  system  —  is  to  be  accom 
plished.  Already  the  first  steps  in  this  direction  are  to  be 
noticed.  Because  of  the  difficulties  put  in  the  way  of 
sweatshops,  the  contract  system  is  giving  way  in  New  York 
to  small  factories.  Home  work  will  have  to  be  fought 
against,  notwithstanding  the  constitutional  difficulties  of 
interfering  with  the  personal  liberty  of  the  American  sover 
eign  in  his  castle ;  it  will  have  to  be  fought  in  spite  of  the 
resistance  of  the  exploited  homeworkers.  In  a  pathetic 
little  story,  a  talented  Yiddish  writer  wittily  describes  the 
objection  and  fear  of  a  Jewish  tailor  of  a  "  tyrannical 
American  law  which  will  interfere  with  an  honest  Jew 
working  in  the  evening. "  The  remoter  results  of  such 
legislation  cannot  be  appreciated  by  the  lower  strata  of  the 
working  mass.  The  religious  aspect  of  the  question,  the 
necessity  of  a  Sabbath  rest,  which  often  drives  the  old-fash 
ioned  Jew  from  a  well  regulated  factory  into  a  dingy 
sweatshop,  will  also  command  serious  attention.  Some 
modification  of  the  strict  Sunday  laws  will  probably  be^ 
found  necessary. 

The  large  Russian  Jewish  population  presents,  as  we  have , 
seen,  the  various  elements  of  social  stratification  and  is  not 
free    from   any  social   problem   that   confronts   the   great     / 
American  people.     But  in  the  economic  field  we  do  not  I/ 
see   any   specifically   Jewish   question    except   those   men 
tioned,  whatever  the  condition  of  affairs  may  be  in  the  edu 
cational  or  in  the  intellectual  fields.     And  as  the  problems 
are  general,  and  not  specifically  Jewish,  so  the  solution 
must  be. 

The  writer  of  these  lines  is  conscious,  however,  of  a  wide 
spread  and  very  different  view.  There  is  a  very  general 
cry  in  certain  Jewish  quarters,  even  more  than  in  the  non- 
Jewish  ones,  that  the  rapid  increase  of  the  Jewish  popula 
tion  in  New  York  has  given  birth  to  a  specific  Jewish  prob 
lem,  which  is  mainly  economic,  but  also  moral  and  intel- 


118       ECONOMIC  AND  INDUSTRIAL  CONDITION 

lectual.  "  The  East  Side  Problem,"  "  The  Ghetto 
Problem  "  are  synonymous  terms.  The  concentration  (or 
congestion,  as  they  prefer  to  style  it)  of  the  Jews  in  New 
York  as  well  as  the  other  large  cities,  is  an  unmitigated  evil 
as  well  as  an  economic  mistake.  Pathetic  descriptions  of 
the  dirt,  misery  and  squalor  of  the  Ghetto  are  commonly 
associated  with  this  argument.  The  fact  is  usually  disre 
garded  that  there  is  a  great  deal  more  dirt,  misery  and 
squalor  in  Italian,  Irish  and  other  kindred  "  ghettos  "  of 
Manhattan  Island. 

The  following  few  lines  are  from  an  authoritative  Jew 
ish  source  r1 

"  The  conditions  amid  which  the  Jews  of  the  New  York 
Ghetto  are  compelled  to  exist  are  slowly  but  surely  under 
mining  both  that  moral  and  physical  health  of  which  we 
have  hitherto  been  so  proud.  The  unspeakable  evils  that 
the  tenements  and  the  sweatshops  as  they  still  persist  in 
evitably  produce  in  the  way  of  depressed  vitality,  sickness, 
consequent  poverty,  and  death,  are  evils  that  it  behooves 
us  to  endeavor  to  kill  at  the  root.  .  .  .  Every  attempt 
to  improve  the  tenement  house,  to  remove  present  residents 
of  the  Ghetto  to  outlying  portions  of  the  city,  to  small 
towns  and  rural  communities,  should  receive  an  earnest 
help  and  active  co-operation.  .  .  .  By  its  geographical 
position,  the  city  of  New  York  has  peculiar  limitations  with 
respect  to  population  which  may  not  be  overstepped  with 
out  a  serious  menace  to  the  community." 

This  quotation  is  typical  of  the  arguments  which  have 
found  their  practical  realization  in  the  agitation  for  re 
moval.  As  the  causes  of  concentration  are  pre-eminently 
economic,  so  its  economic  results  are  of  utmost  importance. 
There  is  a  tendency  to  define  these  economic  results  in  one 
short  and  significant  word,  "  poverty,"  and  removal  to 
other  cities  is  pointed  out  as  a  relief.  The  following  statis 
tical  data  may  help  us  to  decide  how  far  the  claim  is  true 
that  poverty  is  the  result  of  the  Russian  Jewish  congestion 
in  New  York,  how  far  the  condition  of  the  Jewish  worker 
may  be  improved  by  his  removal  to  a  small  town.  Wages 
being  the  source  of  income  of  the  workingman,  his  pros 
perity  depends  financially  upon  the  level  of  wages  : 

1  Lee  K.  Frankel,  Twenty-sixth  Annual  Report  of  the  United  Hebrew  Chari 
ties  of  the  City  of  New  York  (1900),  pp.  32-34. 


NEW  YORK  119 

Men's  Clothing,  Factory  Product 

AVERAGE  WAGES  MEN  WOMEN   CHILDREN 

United   States    $11.36        $5.08        $2.75 

New  York  City   12.26  6.34          2.94 

Outside  New  York  City   ....     10.70          4.88          2.73 

The  last  two  lines  indicate  the  difference  in  average  wages 
in  the  tailoring  trade  in  New  York  and  outside  New  York, 
and  tell  a  quite  eloquent  story.  The  same  peculiarity  is 
observed  in  the  women's  clothing  industry: 

Women's  Clothing,  Factory  Product 

AVERAGE  WAGES  MEN  WOMEN   CHILDREN 

United   States    $12.10        $5.86        $3.14 

New  York  City  12.62          6.94          3.72 

Outside  New  York  City 10.62          4.98          2.83 

Again : 

Men's  Clothing,  Factory  Product 

AVERAGE  WAGES  MEN  WOMEN    CHILDREN 

New  York  City  $12.26  $6.34  $2.94 

Chicago    11.86  6.12  3.40 

Philadelphia     12.40  6.38  3.67 

Other  Localities    9.98  4.62  2.70 

The  table  does  not  seem  to  afford  any  justification  of  the  f 
claim  that  to  remove  the  Russian  Jew  from  New  York  tov 
the  smaller  towns  is  to  adjust  the  labor  market. 

The  other  great  branch  of  the  tailoring  industry,  wom 
en  's  clothing,  shows  exactly  the  same  condition  of  affairs : 

Women's  Clothing,  Factory  Product 

AVERAGE  WAGES  MEN  WOMEN   CHILDREN 

New  York  City  $12.62  $6.86  $3.72 

Chicago    13.14  5.12  2.80 

Philadelphia     10.80  5.16  3.16 

Elsewhere    10.02  4.90  2.78 

Such  are  the  differences  in  the  wage  levels  between  the 
large  and  small  towns. 

It  is  interesting  to  study  the  comparative  women's  and 


120       ECONOMIC  AND  INDUSTEIAL  CONDITION 

children's  labor  in  some  of  the  Jewish  trades  in  New  York 
and  elsewhere.  The  following  table  shows  the  smallest 
proportion  of  this  labor  in  New  York  City : 

Percentage  of  Women's  and  Children's  Labor  Combined 

MEN 'S          WOMEN 'S 
CLOTHING      CLOTHING 

New  York  City 33.6  57.2 

Chicago    64.2  87.9 

Philadelphia    35.4  71.1 

Elsewhere 73.4  85.1 

The  closest  attention  of  the  reader  is  invited  to  these 
tables.  They  tell  at  a  glance  why  the  Russian  Jew  prefers 
at  present  to  stay  in  New  York.  Instead  of  being  an  eco 
nomic  mistake,  it  is  the  result  of  economic  sagacity,  un 
conscious  perhaps. 

The  writer  will  readily  acknowledge  that  the  one-sided- 
ness  of  the  argument  leaves  it  open  to  serious  criticism. 
He  is  aware  that  money  wages  are  often  misleading  and 
may  not  strictly  correspond  to  actual  wages,  measured  in 
terms  of  commodities  and  comforts.  Unfortunately  a  care 
ful  search  through  American  statistical  literature  has  failed 
to  disclose  information  as  to  retail  prices,1  and  the  working- 
men 's  budgets,  published  by  the  Bureau  of  Labor  do  not 
take  the  difference  between  large  and  small  towns  into 
consideration. 

It  cannot  be  doubted,  however,  that  lower  wages  go  hand 

in  hand  with  lower  expenditures,  for  the  limited  credit  of 

the  average  workingman  does  not  permit  his  spending  more 

ithan  he  earns.     But  it  is  undoubtedly  true  that  the  gen- 

^eral    conviction    prevails    that    living    is    comparatively 

cheaper  in  small  towns  than  in  large  cities.     Let  us  subject 

the  basis  of  this  conviction  to  a  short  analysis. 

Food,  clothing,  and  shelter  are  the  three  prime  channels 
of  expenditure  in  a  workman's  family.  Food  is  certainly 
cheaper  in  a  great  many  rural  and  semi-rural  communities, 
where  many  articles  are  produced  in  the  neighborhood. 
With  slight  exception,  however,  in  rural  communities  ap 
plication  for  industrial  energy  is  not  readily  found.  When 
we  turn  to  middle-sized  cities,  where  the  local  supply  of 
vegetable  and  animal  food  stuffs  is  no  longer  available, 

1  American  price  statistics  deal  with  wholesale  prices  and  are  therefore  of 
little  value  for  the  study  of  expenses  of  living. 


NEW  YORK  121 

this  particular  advantage  vanishes  altogether.  Wholesale 
prices  for  food  stuffs  are  determined  in  the  world's  market 
and  only  modified  by  facilities  and  expenses  of  transporta 
tion.  In  determining  these  expenses  mere  distances  are 
much  less  important  than  geographical  position,  terminal 
facilities  and  other  matters,  in  which  large  centres  like 
New  York  possess  a  great  advantage  over  smaller  inland 
cities.  Fresh  meat,  fruits  and  vegetables  are  more  easily 
obtained  and  cost  less  in  New  York  than  in  Washington, 
Syracuse,  Oshkosh,  or  Kalamazoo.  That  this  is  especial 
ly  true  of  clothing,  dry  goods,  and  the  thousand  and  one 
products  of  manufacture,  daily  used  in  the  home,  no  one 
will  deny,  as  the  large  cities,  particularly  New  York,  are 
centres  for  the  production  of  these  goods. 

On  the  other  hand,  it  is  equally  true  that  rents  are  lower 
in  the  smaller  cities,  or  rather  that  the  working  people  pay 
less  rent  in  the  smaller  than  in  the  larger  cities.  The  lat 
ter  form  of  the  statement  is  preferred  because  in  the 
smaller  town  the  working  man  pays  less  for  a  shelter,  and 
may  even  have  more  room,  but  seldom  gets  the  many  com 
forts  and  improvements  that  even  a  tenement  home  in  New 
York  provides.  Gas,  water,  washtubs,  sometimes  a  bath 
tub,  or  even  hot  water, —  all  these  are  luxuries  in  the  small 
er  towns  not  to  be  found  in  many  a  workingman's  home. 
Though  in  the  final  analysis  the  worker  in  the  small  city 
is  favored  in  the  matter  of  rent,  the  difference  will  hardly 
overbalance  the  higher  prices  for  clothing,  provisions,  and 
many  other  incidentals  of  the  household. 

The  conditions  of  labor  will  have  to  change  before  the 
Russian  Jew  will  find  it  advantageous  to  go  further  in 
stead  of  stopping  in  New  York.  The  general  improvement 
in  the  conditions  of  labor  in  the  smaller  towns  will  have 
to  come  first.  Only  when  labor  legislation  shall  have  ac 
complished  for  the  smaller  towns  what  labor  unions  have 
partially  succeeded  in  accomplishing  in  New  York  will  the 
problem  assume  another  aspect.1 

1  For  a  fuller  discussion  of  this  problem,  the  reader  is  referred  to  the  fol 
lowing  articles  of  the  author:  "Concentration  or  Removal  —  Which?"  Ameri 
can  Hebrew,  July  17  and  24,  1903,  and  "  Removal!  A  New  Patent  Medicine." 
Ibid.  September  25,  1903.  In  the  intermediate  numbers  of  this  publication, 
discussions  of  this  point  of  view  may  also  be  found. 


J 


(5)  PHILADELPHIA1 

To  analyze  the  economic  and  industrial  condition  of  a 
people  is  intensely  interesting,  but  it  is  painful  to  watch 
the  tense  struggle  for  existence  which  is  going  on  among 
the  population  about  to  be  described.  There  are,  it  is  true, 
influences  at  work  which  make  the  struggle  hopeful,  and 
which  lighten  the  burden  at  times,  but  the  strife  and  the 
stress  are  severe.  Hardened  to  suffering,  the  people  push 
on  tenaciously,  grimly  facing  the  by-stander,  often  scoffing 
at  the  feeling  of  pity  which  may  well  up  in  him. 

It  is  my  purpose  to  present  a  picture  of  the  economic 
life  of  the  Russian  Jews  of  the  city  of  Philadelphia.  A 
forced  immigration  covering  a  period  of  twenty  years  is  not 
likely  to  produce  a  very  settled  population,  and  the  picture 
will  therefore  show  features  due  to  the  rapid  changes  which 
are  going  on.  All  stages  of  prosperity  and  lack  of  pros 
perity  are  to  be  found  among  the  population.  On  the  one 
side  are  those  who  still  need  the  helping  hand  of  the  relief 
and  the  employment  agencies,  on  the  other  are  those  who, 
arriving  here  poverty-stricken,  have  amassed  wealth  and 
employ  large  numbers  of  persons  in  their  businesses.  Be 
tween  are  the  struggling  masses. 

The  industries  in  which  the  Russian  Jewish  population 
are  most  largely  employed  may  be  summed  up  under  the 
head  of  needle  industries.  These  include  the  clothing 
trade,  and  the  manufacture  of  cloaks,  waists,  wrappers, 
skirts,  shirts,  overalls,  and  underwear.  In  the  manufac 
ture  of  clothing  in  this  city  the  majority  of  the  employees 
are  Russian  Jews. 

Some  idea  of  their  occupations  can  be  obtained  from  an 
examination  of  the  assessors'  list  of  voters  in  some  of  the 
lower  wards  of  the  city.  Some  time  ago  I  counted  roughly 
about  2,000  Jewish  voters,  and  of  these  fully  one-third, 
about  700,  were  marked  as  tailors  or  as  connected  with  the 
tailoring  trade.  Over  300  were  entered  as  merchants  and 

1  The  writer  is  indebted  to  Miss  Helen  Marot  and  Miss  Caroline  L.  Pratt 
for  some  of  the  data  furnished  in  reference  to  the  clothing  trade. 

122 


PHILADELPHIA  123 

dealers.  Under  the  euphemistic  title  of  "  dealer  "  are 
doubtless  a  large  number  of  peddlers.  There  were  over 
100  recorded  as  clerks  and  salesmen,  85  as  cigar  makers,  35 
as  butchers,  25  as  grocers,  and  the  remainder  in  a  variety 
of  occupations.  It  would  serve  no  purpose  to  give  the  de-  - 
tails,  for,  aside  from  the  lack  of  a  system  of  classification 
of  occupations,  one  of  the  last  places  to  go  for  an  accurate 
statistical  record  is  a  Philadelphia  assessor's  list  of  voters 
in  a  downtown  ward  —  or  in  many  an  uptown  ward  —  so 
that  the  figures  given  are  not  to  be  regarded  as  careful 
statistical  estimates,  but  merely  as  illustrations  of  the  lead 
ing  occupations. 

An  examination  of  the  occupations  of  the  Eussian  Jew 
ish  pupils  of  three  public  night  schools  down  town  (Fifth 
and  Fitzwater  Streets,  Third  and  Catharine  Streets,  and 
Sixth  and  Spruce  Streets),  one  season,  revealed  the  fact 
that  of  about  900  young  men  and  600  young  women,  fully 
a  third  were  in  the  needle  industries.  It  is  of  interest  to 
note,  also,  that  there  were  about  50  peddlers  and  keepers  of 
stands,  over  75  newsboys,  and  some  120  cash,  errand,  and 
messenger  boys. 

In  the  absence  of  special  skill  for  particular  trades  the 
immigrants  have  gone  into  the  easily  acquired  needle  indus 
tries,  in  which,  with  their  minute  subdivision,  a  particular 
occupation  can,  in  many  instances,  be  learned  in  a  few 
weeks.  The  immigrant  becomes  a  sweatshop  laborer,  with 
all  that  that  implies. 

There  has  been  some  endeavor  to  divert  the  steady  stream 
which  leads  from  the  immigrant  ship  to  the  sweatshop. 
Families  are  at  times  sent  into  country  towns  to  labor,  and 
individuals  are  forwarded  into  factory  towns  where  they 
can  work  under  better  conditions  than  are  afforded  by  the 
over-crowded  needle  industries  in  the  city.  The  movement 
from  this  city,  though  small  and  slow,  is  nevertheless  en 
couraging. 

The  schools  of  the  Hebrew L_Ediication, Society  are  an 
other  example  of  an  endeavor  to  remove  the  economic  clog, 
and  to  turn  the  immigrants  into  the  direction  of  skilled  V 
industries.  Hundreds  of  graduates  from  this  school  can 
testify  to  the  effort  in  the  direction  of  industrial  education. 
Cigar  making  and  clothing  cutting  for  young  men,  millin 
ery  and  dress  making  for  young  women,  are  taught  in  this 
school. 

The    results    are    comparatively    small,   however.     The 


124       ECONOMIC  AND  INDUSTRIAL  CONDITION 

problem  of  the  congested  needle  industries  is  but  little  af 
fected  by  such  efforts,  when  the  condition  of  the  thousands 
in  these  trades  is  considered. 

I  have  no  means  of  determining  with  any  degree  of  ac 
curacy  the  number  of  Russian  Jews  in  this  city  in  the  vari 
ous  trades.  There  is  enough  evidence  from  different  sides 
to  show  beyond  a  doubt  that  the  needle  workers  are  by  far 
predominant  in  numbers,  and  from  examination  of  the 
factory  inspectors'  reports  and  personal  inquiry  of  leading 
workers,  I  think  an  estimate  of  10,000  as  aggregating  the 
total  number  would  not  be  an  exaggeration.  In  the  various 
branches  of  the  cigar  trade  there  are  about  1,000  employed. 
There  are  between  500  and  1,000  peddlers  and  keepers  of 
stands,  the  number  varying  according  to  the  season  of  the 
year.  Factory  workmen,  shop  keepers  of  various  kinds, 
clerks  and  salesmen,  girls  in  cigar,  cigarette,  and  other  fac 
tories,  in  shops  and  in  stores,  make  up  the  bulk  of  the  re 
mainder  of  the  population.  Then  there  are  the  workmen 
in  the  ordinary  vocations  which  every  population  affords, 
and  finally,  the  professional  class.  There  are  a  number 
of  young  men  studying  for  the  professions,  so  that  within 
the  near  future  the  list  of  the  latter  will  be  largely  in 
creased. 

A  survey  of  the  section  in  which  the  Russian  Jewish  peo 
ple  reside  reveals,  on  the  outside,  far  less  evidence  of  the 
presence  of  the  sweatshops  and  their  workers  than  one 
would  imagine  from  reading  lurid  newspaper  descriptions. 
But  this  will  not  seem  so  strange  when  it  is  understood  that 
much  of  the  work  of  the  needle  industries  is  done  in  the 
homes, —  and  some  of  the  worst  results,  both  from  the  eco 
nomic  and  the  sanitary  standpoints,  are  in  consequence  of 
home  work, —  and  that  there  is  no  attempt  to  display  large 
signs  advertising  the  business,  as  would  be  the  case  with 
factories  and  mills  of  other  industries  and  in  other  dis 
tricts.  One  must  often  sedulously  seek  the  shops  in  order 
to  find  them. 

It  is  significant  that  in  the  reports  of  the  factory  inspec 
tors  all  the  shops  with  which  we  are  dealing  are  designated 
as  sweatshops;  garment  and  cigar  factories  are  all  under 
this  head,  and  it  is  only  in  the  details  of  the  reports  that  a 
distinction  is  made  as  to  the  sanitary  condition  being  good, 
fair,  or  bad. 

We  enter  a  sweatshop  on  Lombard,  Bainbridge,  Monroe 
or  South  Fourth  Street.  It  may  be  on  one  of  several  floors 


PHILADELPHIA  125 

in  which  similar  work  is  going  on.  The  shop  is  that  of  the 
so-called  contractor  —  one  who  contracts  with  the  manu 
facturer  to  put  his  garments  together  after  they  have  been 
cut  by  the  cutter.  The  pieces  are  taken  in  bundles  from 
the  manufacturer's  to  the  contractor's.  Each  contractor 
usually  undertakes  the  completion  of  one  sort  —  pants, 
coats,  vests,  knee  pants,  or  children's  jackets.  There  is 
probably  one  whole  floor  devoted  to  the  making  of  this  one 
kind  of  garment.  It  may  be  that  two  contractors  divide 
the  space  of  a  floor,  the  one,  perhaps,  being  a  pants  con 
tractor,  and  the  other  a  vest  contractor,  with  an  entirely 
distinct  set  of  employees.  To  his  employees  the  contractor 
is  the  "  boss,"  as  you  find  out  when  you  inquire  at  the 
shop.  Before  you  have  reached  the  shop,  you  have  prob 
ably  climbed  one,  two,  or  three  flights  of  stairs,  littered 
with  debris.  You  readily  recognize  the  entrance  to  one  of 
these  shops  once  inside  the  building.  The  room  is  likely  to 
be  ill-smelling  and  badly  ventilated :  the  workers  are  afraid 
of  draughts.  Consequently,  an  abnormally  bad  air  is 
breathed  which  it  is  difficult  for  the  ordinary  person  to 
stand  long.  Thus  result  the  tubercular  and  other  diseases 
which  the  immigrant  acquires  in  his  endeavor  to  work  out 
his  economic  existence. 

There  are  the  operator  at  the  machine,  the  presser  at  the 
ironing  table,  the  baster  and  the  finisher  with  their  nee 
dles —  the  latter  young  women  —  all  bending  their  backs 
and  straining  their  eyes  over  the  garments  the  people  wear, 
many  working  long  hours  in  busy  season  for  a  compensa 
tion  that  hardly  enables  them  to  live,  and  in  dull  season, 
not  knowing  how  they  will  get  along  at  all. 

If  we  apply  our  ordinary  standards  of  sanitation  to 
these  shops  they  certainly  come  below  such  standards.  By 
frequent  visits  we  may  grow  accustomed  to  the  sights  and 
smells,  and  perhaps  unconsciously  assume  that  such  shops 
must  in  the  nature  of  things  be  in  bad  condition.  But  a 
little  reflection  will  readily  show  the  error  of  such  an  as 
sumption. 

It  is  all  the  more  harrowing  that  the  workers  have  a 
tenacity  of  life  due  to  a  rich  inheritance  of  vitality,  and 
that  through  sickness  and  disease,  through  squalor  and 
filth,  they  proceed  onward,  often  managing  to  pull  them 
selves  out  of  the  economic  slough,  though  retaining,  per 
haps,  the  defects  of  bad  physical  development  and  sur 
roundings. 


126       ECONOMIC  AND  INDUSTRIAL  CONDITION 

But  there  is  a  larger  social  question  involved.  The 
community  at  large  incurs  a  danger  through  the  germs  of 
disease  which  a  dirty  shop  may  spread  in  the  garments  it 
turns  out.  And  so  the  government  steps  in  to  inspect  the 
shops,  supposedly  requiring  them  to  conform  to  certain 
sanitary  regulations,  both  because  of  the  health  of  the  em 
ployees  and  of  the  community  generally.  But,  as  a  matter 
of  fact,  most  of  the  contractors'  shops  that  I  visited  are 
really  not  good  places  to  work  in.  The  best  result  of  in 
specting  them  by  the  government  inspector  would  be  to 
"  inspect  "  them  out  of  existence.  But  the  law  and  the 
human  instruments  of  the  law  are  not  strong  enough  for 
that.  The  inspection  force  is  ludicrously  inadequate  for 
the  large  number  of  places  to  be  looked  after,  so  that,  with 
the  best  intentions,  the  inspectors  must  feel  themselves 
helpless.  The  law,  as  it  reads,  would  seem  to  be  stringent 
enough.  It  requires  that  before  work  of  the  kind  under 
consideration  can  go  on  in  a  place,  the  employer  must  have 
a  permit  from  the  inspector  "  stating  the  maximum  num 
ber  of  persons  allowed  to  be  employed  therein  and  that  the 
building,  or  part  of  building,  intended  to  be  used  for  such 
work  or  business  is  thoroughly  clean,  sanitary  and  fit  for 
occupancy  for  such  work  or  business. "  Not  less  than  250 
cubic  feet  of  air  space  are  to  be  allowed  for  each  person, 
and  "  there  shall  be  sufficient  means  of  ventilation  pro 
vided  in  each  workroom."  Manufacturers  are  required  to 
have  the  permit  produced  before  giving  work  to  a  con 
tractor.  There  is  a  penalty  attached  to  working  without 
such  permit.  The  manufacturer  shields  himself  behind  the 
permit  issued  to  the  contractor.  The  contractor  likewise. 
As  ever,  form  without  spirit  is  deadening,  and  so  the  con 
science  of  the  community  must  be  more  thoroughly  aroused 
before  there  is  a  real  remedy  of  the  conditions.  We  have 
here  another  illustration  of  how  politics,  which  is  satisfied 
with  putting  laws  on  the  statute  books  and  executing  them 
through  inadequate  agencies  appointed  through  the  usual 
influences,  menaces  the  health  and  economic  condition  of 
a  community,  failing  to  realize  the  larger  purpose  which 
would  compel  an  intelligent  carrying  out  of  the  law,  or 
a  clear  demonstration  of  its  failure  if  it  is  inadequate. 

It  should  be  added,  by  way  of  information,  that  besides 
the  Russian  Jews  the  largest  other  element  in  the  needle 
industries  referred  to  is  the  Italian;  and  certain  lines  of 


PHILADELPHIA  127 

goods  made  by  Jews  are  sometimes  handed  over  to  Italians 
for  finishing. 

The  shops  are  chiefly  conducted  by  the  contractors,  en 
tirely  independent  of  the  manufacturers,  and  the  various 
manufacturers  for  whom  they  work  assume  no  liability 
with  reference  to  them  or  their  employees.  They  merely 
agree  to  pay  so  much  per  piece  for  the  garments  they  give 
out,  and  expect  the  garments  to  be  returned  to  their  estab 
lishments  as  agreed  upon  by  the  contractors.  Few  in  this 
city  have  "  inside  "  shops,  that  is,  shops  in  which  the  en 
tire  garment  is  completed  inside  the  establishment,  or  in  a 
separate  building,  under  their  own  supervision.  Wherever 
these  inside  shops  have  been  established  the  conditions  are 
very  much  better ;  the  shop  is  much  cleaner,  the  light  good, 
the  air  bearable,  and  the  compensation  usually  more  steady. 

The  last  statement  requires  elucidation.  In  one  clothing 
manufacturing  establishment,  there  is  in  the  rear  a  so-called 
inside  shop  with  a  regular  contractor  in  charge.  The  firm 
furnishes  its  first  work  to  this  contractor  and  thus  enables 
him  to  give,  in  turn,  steady  employment,  but  claims  it  could 
not  extend  such  a  shop  without  adding  considerably  to  the 
expense,  as  the  rental  and  the  assurance  of  regularity  in 
volve  a  larger  outlay  than  arranging  with  contractors  who 
compete  on  the  basis  of  low  rentals  and  the  smallest  possible 
expense. 

Another  firm  has  some  of  its  high-grade  work  completed 
by  inside  hands,  and  here,  too,  the  conditions  are  good,  be 
ing  more  akin  to  the  inside  shops  of  the  cloak  trade. 

One  establishment  for  the  manufacture  of  uniforms  has 
a  large  building  as  an  inside  shop,  devoted  to  the  completion 
of  the  garments  as  they  come  from  the  hands  of  the  cutters. 
Here  were  "  sets  "  of  workers  (a  "  set  "  is  usually  an  oper 
ator,  a  presser,  and  a  finisher)  who  agreed  to  complete  a 
garment  for  a  certain  gross  sum,  dividing  the  receipts  ac 
cording  to  a  pro  rata  agreement,  one  of  them  being  respon 
sible  for  the  work.  The  light  and  air  were  good,  and  the 
workers  had  the  use  of  electric  motor  power. 

In  this  connection,  it  should  be  noted  with  congratulation 
that  one  of  the  largest  clothing  firms  has  a  factory  in  the 
southern  section  of  the  city  that  utilizes  the  services  of  about 
a  thousand  employees,  who  come  more  immediately  under 
the  supervision  of  the  manufacturer.  This  will  do  away  with 
a  small  body  of  contractors  and  their  shops,  and  with  many 
evil  features  consequent  upon  their  maintenance. 


128       ECONOMIC  AND  INDUSTRIAL  CONDITION 

An  analysis  of  the  wages  of  the  employees  in  the  various 
divisions  of  the  garment  industry  collected  chiefly  in  1901 
follows : 

Through  the  kindness  of  one  of  the  large  trouser  contrac 
tors,  I  am  enabled  to  state  exactly  the  amount  which  each 
class  of  worker  in  his  shop  received  in  a  year's  time  ending 
in  the  spring  of  1901.  But  the  amounts  thus  paid  out,  it 
should  be  borne  in  mind,  are  of  the  highest  range,  inasmuch 
as  this  contractor  had  work  during  the  entire  year,  whereas 
the  usual  employment  in  the  contractors'  shops  during  the 
same  period  did  not  equal  more  than  about  28  full  weeks' 
work.  It  has  been  calculated  that  for  the  year  in  question 
the  amount  of  work  which  was  available  for  the  average 
worker  did  not  amount  to  more  than  about  what  would  be 
equal  to  28  weeks'  full  time.  That  is  to  say,  there 
might  be  employment  for  some  period  for  every  working 
day  of  the  week,  and  for  other  periods  for  a  smaller  number 
of  days  per  week  and  but  for  a  partial  number  of  hours 
per  day,  and  sometimes  practically  no  work. 

We  have  here,  too,  an  estimate  as  to  what  one  of  the 
fastest  operators  in  the  city  can  earn.  He  was  employed  at 
his  trade  39  weeks,  having  been  in  some  other  employment 
during  13  weeks  of  the  year  given.  He  worked  on  4171 
pairs  of  trousers  in  that  time,  or  an  average  of  108  per 
week,  and  received  during  the  period  $543.25,  or  an  aver 
age  of  $13.93  per  week,  being  equal  to  13  cents  per  pair.  In 
the  same  shop  a  second  operator,  working  52  weeks  in  the 
year  on  4,680  pairs  of  trousers,  or  90  pairs  per  week,  re 
ceived  $590.55,  which  is  an  average  of  $11.36  per  week,  not 
quite  13  cents  per  pair.  A  third,  working  42  weeks  on  3,504 
pairs,  received  $509.59,  or  an  average  of  83  pairs,  at  $12.13 
per  week.  Though  his  average  per  week  is  higher  than  the 
one  before,  he  is  not  as  well  off  for  the  year. 

Records  from  trouser  operators  in  other  shops  show  that 
the  average  earnings  per  year  were  considerably  below  this 
owing  to  but  partial  employment.  Payment  is  by  the  piece, 
from  10  to  12%  cents  being  a  fair  average  price.  A  full 
week's  work  will  see  the  completion  of  perhaps  80  pairs. 
The  average  workman  will  receive  at  the  end  of  the  week, 
in  full  time,  therefore,  about  $10.  As  the  year's  work  (up 
to  the  spring  of  1901)  did  not  amount  to  more  than  28 
weeks,  the  yearly  earnings  were  not  more  than  about  $280, 
or  an  average  of  about  $5.40  in  the  week. 

A  vest  operator  is  paid  about  9  cents  per  garment.     He 


PHILADELPHIA  129 

can  complete  about  120  per  week,  which  at  $10.80  for  28 
weeks  would  make  about  $300  per  year.  Statements  from 
operators  in  various  shops  show  that  with  a  full  week's  work 
they  earn  about  this  sum,  some  of  the  best  earning  a  little 
more.  But,  as  the  year's  work  amounted  to  only  28  weeks, 
the  earnings  per  year  would  be  about  $300  a  year,  or  an 
average  of  about  $6  per  week. 

The  results  as  to  coat  operators  were  about  the  same. 
They  earned  from  $15  to  $18  per  week,  but  had  not  more 
than  about  20  weeks '  work,  so  that  their  earnings  were  from 
$300  to  $360  per  year,  or  an  average  of  not  much  more  than 
$6  per  week. 

In  children's  jackets,  the  earnings  were  from  $4  to  $12  a 
week;  a  year's  work  was  equal  to  30  weeks,  making  from 
$120  to  $360  per  year,  or  an  average  of  from  $2.30  to  $6.90 
per  week.  The  average  payment  would  equal  about  $5  per 
week. 

In  knee  pants,  the  earnings  for  operators  were  from  $9 
to  $10  in  a  full  week.  The  number  of  weeks'  employment 
was  about  25,  and  the  earnings  per  year  were  from  $200  to 
$250,  an  average  of  from  $4  to  $5  per  week. 

Proceeding  in  the  same  way  with  reference  to  pressers, 
we  have  our  trouser  contractor's  record  of  $1,265.77  paid 
out  to  three  pressers  in  43  weeks,  or  an  average  of  $9.81  for 
each  man,  and  $330.44  paid  out  to  four  pressers  in  the  re 
maining  9  weeks  of  the  year,  or  an  average  of  $9.18  per 
man.  This,  be  it  remembered,  is  for  the  exceptional  shop 
with  full  employment  the  year  round.  Returns  from  inter 
viewing  men  in  other  shops  showed  earnings  of  from  $5  to 
$10,  or  $12  in  a  full  week.  With  28  weeks'  work  in  the 
year  the  earnings  for  the  year  would  be  from  $140  to  $336. 
The  average  was  about  midway  between  these  figures,  or 
$4.50  per  week. 

Vest  pressers  averaged  about  3%  cents  per  garment  and 
complete  about  300  in  a  week,  which  is  equal  to  $10.50,  and 
for  a  year  of  28  weeks  averaged  a  little  over  $300.  Actual 
records  from  vest  shops  showed  earnings  for  pressers  of 
from  $9  to  $14,  which,  with  28  weeks'  actual  work,  would 
make  the  average  about  $300  per  year,  or  $6  per  week. 

The  earnings  of  coat  pressers  were  about  on  a  par  with 
those  of  the  vest  pressers,  averaging  not  more  than  $300 
per  year,  or  $6  per  week. 

Those  on  the  children 's  jackets  trade  earned  between  $200 
and  $300  per  year,  or  an  average  of  from  $4  to  $6  per  week. 


130       ECONOMIC  AND  INDUSTRIAL  CONDITION 

Knee  pants  pressers  earned  from  $150  to  $200  per  year, 
or  from  $3  to  $4  per  week,  on  the  average. 

The  trouser  baster  of  the  same  contractor  from  whom 
data  as  to  other  employees  were  obtained  received  in  a  year 
$287.91,  or  an  average  of  $5.54  per  week.  He  had  practic 
ally  full  work  the  year  round.  Assuming  the  work  for  the 
usual  baster  in  a  shop  to  have  been  equal  to  28  weeks,  the 
pay  on  the  average,  for  the  year,  would  not  have  been  more 
than  about  $170,  or  a  little  over  $3  per  week. 

For  vest  basters,  the  average  from  a  number  of  shops 
showed  about  the  same  result  as  for  the  trouser  baster  — 
from  $150  to  $200  per  year,  or  a  weekly  average  of  between 
$3  and  $4. 

Among  the  coat  basters,  earnings  were  higher.  The  men 
who  do  the  basting  are  the  chief  mechanics  on  the  garment. 
Some  earned  as  much  at  $350,  but  the  average  for  the  ma 
jority  was  about  $300,  which  is  approximately  equal  to  a 
weekly  average  of  $6. 

On  children's  jackets,  basters  and  fitters  earned  from 
$250  to  $300  per  year,  or  an  average  of  from  $5  to  $6  per 
week. 

Coming  now  to  finishers  —  who  are  young  women  —  our 
trouser  contractor 's  returns  on  which  we  have  drawn  before 
showed  the  following  payments  respectively  to  three  finish 
ers  whom  he  employed  the  whole  year:  $220.99,  or  an 
average  of  $4.25  per  week ;  $215.95,  or  an  average  of  $4.15 
per  week;  $205.25,  or  an  average  of  $3.97  per  week.  The 
ordinary  finisher,  however,  having  but  28  weeks'  work, 
would  earn  not  more  than  $100,  $125  or  $150  per  year,  or 
between  $2  and  $3  per  week,  on  the  average. 

Average  returns  from  vest  shops  showed  earnings  of 
about  $150  per  year,  equaling  $3  per  week.  There  were  a 
few  who  earned  higher  wages. 

An  average  calculation  based  on  returns  from  coat  shops 
showed  practically  the  same  result  —  not  more  than  $150 
per  year,  or  $3  per  week. 

The  same  is  the  case  among  the  children's  jacket  workers. 

In  all  these  instances,  it  should  be  noted,  that  in  a  full 
week  individual  earnings  may  be  higher,  but  when  com 
puted  for  the  year  the  average  worker's  earnings  will  not 
be  above  the  sums  indicated. 

We  have  presented  the  earning  capacity  of  the  chief 
classes  of  piece  workers  in  the  clothing  trade.  There  are, 
however,  other  employees,  paid  usually  by  the  week,  and 


PHILADELPHIA  131 

there  are,  of  course,  other  outlays  on  the  part  of  the 
contractor. 

Viewing  the  subject  now  from  the  standpoint  of  the  con 
tractor,  let  us  estimate  the  cost  of  the  garments  to  him,  and 
his  net  gain.  Taking  the  figures  of  our  standard  trouser 
contractor,  we  find  that  he  made  21,157  pairs  in  the  year,  or 
an  average  of  407  pairs  per  week,  and  that  his  payments  per 
pair  averaged  as  follows:  Operating,  12.9  cents;  pressing, 
7.5  cents;  finishing,  6.6  cents;  tacking  and  button  holing, 
2.2  cents ;  basting,  1.3  cents.  Adding  to  these  items  his  esti 
mate  of  2  cents  for  shop  expenses,  including  rent,  coal  and 
gas,  and  1  cent  for  errand  and  delivery  service,  we  have  a 
total  of  33%  cents.  He  received  from  the  manufacturer 
between  35  and  40  cents  per  pair,  according  to  the  nature 
of  the  garment.  Assuming  an  average  of  37%  cents,  his 
profit  was  4  cents  per  pair,  making  more  than  $800  per 
year,  or  some  $16  per  week. 

Another  trouser  contractor  paid  out  20  cents  per  gar 
ment  for  operating,  basting,  finishing  and  tacking.  He  re 
ceived  from  32  to  35  cents.  He  could  turn  out  about  250 
per  week.  Taking  an  average,  the  $33.75  per  week  is  sub 
ject  to  a  deduction  of  $3.50  for  rent  and  other  expenses, 
leaving  slightly  over  $30  per  week,  which,  on  the  basis  of 
28  weeks'  work  would  be  $840  per  year,  or  an  average 
earning  of  about  $16  per  week. 

Similarily,  let  us  accept  the  following  calculation  by  a 
vest  contractor  of  the  cost  to  him  of  a  garment :  Foreman, 
4  cents;  operator,  15  cents;  baster,  10  cents;  hand  button 
hole  maker,  15  cents;  finisher,  3  cents;  presser,  4  cents;  er 
rand  boy,  4  cents ;  total  56  cents.  He  received  60  cents  from 
the  manufacturer.  He  could  turn  out  about  800  vests  in  a 
week.  To  his  expenditures  are  to  be  added  rent,  fuel  and 
light.  His  net  earnings  in  a  full  week  were,  perhaps,  $25. 
But  if  he  has  but  28  weeks'  work  in  a  year  the  total  would 
be  not  more  than  about  $700,  or  an  average  of  $14  per  week. 
This  corresponds  fairly  well  with  the  statement  of  another 
vest  contractor  that  net  earnings  would  be  from  $13  to  $18 
per  week.  A  third  vest  contractor  who  paid  an  average  of 
23  cents  per  garment  to  his  operator,  baster,  finisher,  and 
presser,  and  who  could  turn  out  about  600  garments  in  a 
week,  received  27%  cents  for  them.  From  the  average  of 
$25  per  week  there  must  be  deducted  rental  ($13  per 
month)  and  other  expenses,  leaving,  possibly,  $20  earnings 


132       ECONOMIC  AND  INDUSTRIAL  CONDITION 

for  a  full  week;  $560  for  a  year,  on  a  basis  of  28  weeks,  or 
an  average  of  $11  per  week. 

The  contractor  is  usually  an  operator  01  other  worker 
who  becomes  imbued  with  the  desire  to  set  up  for  himself. 
Excessive  competition  among  the  small  contractors  has  con 
tributed  to  the  bad  economic  state  of  affairs  in  the  garment 
trades.  The  contractor  is  between  the  upper  mill-stone  of 
the  manufacturer  and  the  nether  mill-stone  of  the  work 
man,  forced  to  take  the  prices  of  the  one  and  trying  to 
make  the  utmost  possible  out  of  the  other.  Some  few  have 
saved  enough  to  become  manufacturers  themselves.  Some 
of  the  old  established  manufacturing  firms  have  retired 
from  business  as  the  result  of  the  competition  of  this  new 
element. 

In  actual  money  gains,  the  contractors  whose  earnings 
have  been  estimated  are  better  off  than  their  workmen. 
Many  said  that  if  they  could  get  their  little  capital  back 
they  would  probably  return  to  their  former  occupation  — 
at  least  for  a  time,  for  the  desire  to  be  a  "  boss  "  is  strong 
and  would  doubtless  lead  to  other  attempts. 

In  the  cloak  trades  we  find  a  somewhat  better  state  of 
affairs  than  in  the  clothing.  The  shop  is  part  of  the  plant 
of  the  manufacturer  himself  and  under  his  direct  sur 
veillance.  Besides  being  well  lighted  and  ventilated  the 
shops  have  machine  power.  There  is  in  this  trade  compara 
tively  little  work  given  out  to  contractors,  though  there  is 
some,  especially  in  busy  seasons. 

An  operator  on  first  class  ladies'  cloaks  and  suits  earns 
about  $30  in  a  full  week's  time,  and  as  there  is  about  half 
year's  work  in  a  year,  his  earnings  are  about  $750  per  year, 
or  an  average  of  $20  per  week. 

A  presser  on  first  class  work  averages  about  $18  per  week 
a  full  week,  but  as  the  work  in  a  year  is  not  more  than  about 
two-thirds  time,  the  earnings  are  about  $700  per  year,  a 
weekly  average  of  $14. 

Finishers  (girls)  average  about  $8,  in  a  full  week,  have 
about  30  weeks'  work  and,  therefore,  earn  about  $240  per 
year. 

In  the  clothing  trade  the  yearly  earnings  ranged  from 
$125  for  finishers  (who  are  young  women),  to  $360  for 
operators,  with  $300  as  the  average  for  the  majority,  be 
tween  these  being  the  basters  at  $175,  and  the  pressers  at 
$250. 

In  the  cloak  trade,  the  conditions,  as  has  been  noted,  are 


PHILADELPHIA  133 

better  not  only  with  respect  to  the  physical  but  the  economic 
status  as  well. 

The  condition  of  the  cigar  makers  is  much  better,  on  the 
whole,  than  that  of  the  workers  in  the  needle  industries. 
Earnings  of  between  $500  and  $600  per  year,  or  an  average 
of  from  $10  to  $12  per  week,  would  be  a  fair  estimate. 

The  people  are  branching  out  into  various  trades,  but 
there  are  none  which  employ  such  large  numbers  or  in 
which  the  conditions  are  peculiar,  so  as  to  call  for  specific 
mention. 

Peddling  is  an  occupation  into  which  new  immigrants 
easily  enter.  Many  earn  a  very  precarious  livelihood.  Some 
develop  into  retail  tradesmen. 

A  noticable  tendency  to  go  into  the  profession  of  medi 
cine  is  to  be  observed.     Many  a  Russian  Jew  with  intel-    / 
lectual  ability  will  be  laying  plans  to  go  from  the  shop^ 


into  medical  practice.     Law,  dentistry  and  pharmacy  are 
the  other  favorite  professions. 

Some  of  the  Russian  Jewish  people  are  rising  to  com 
fortable  positions  in  the  professions  and  commerce.  Among 
the  employers  of  labor  there  are  several  doing  thousands  of 
dollars'  worth  of  business  yearly.  There  are  merchants 
and  manufacturers,  some  who  still  live  in  the  southern  sec 
tion  of  the  city,  others  who  have  moved  up  town,  among  the 
prosperous  elements  of  the  community.  Economically,  they 
can,  of  course,  now  take  care  of  themselves,  but  their  rise 
upwards  has  often  been  severe  and  hazardous. 

Real  estate  purchases  are  a  growing  element  in  the  eco 
nomic  progress  of  the  population  ;  many  a  comfortable  sum 
is  made  through  their  means. 

Some  of  the  bank  accounts  would  astonish  the  unknow 
ing.  So,  too,  the  growing  number  of  those  who  become 
insured  is  indicative  of  foresightedness  and  prosperity.  J 
One  Russian  Jewish  insurance  agent  in  the  down-town  dis 
trict  has  a  number  of  insured  which  would  surprise  those 
who  know  merely  the  outward  aspects  of  the  district. 

From  our  examination  of  the  conditions  of  the  needle 
industries,  the  keen  and  difficult  struggle  that  is  going  on 
among  the  masses  is  readily  seen.  Many  an  one  used  to  a 
well-to-do  existence  can  hardly  conceive  how  some  of  the 
men  get  along  on  their  slender  incomes,  for  they  often  must 
support  a  large  family.  Instances  are  familiar  in  which  a 
worker  has  a  whole  bevy  of  children,  all  too  young  to  assist 


134       ECONOMIC  AND  INDUSTRIAL  CONDITION 

in  meeting  the  wants  of  a  family,  and  the  wife  with  her 
hands  full  looking  after  the  needs  of  the  little  ones. 

In  busy  season  the  employees  are  required  to  work  long 
hours,  sometimes  as  high  as  fifteen,  perhaps  eighteen,  a  day. 
In  slack  season  they  must  wait  for  the  work  that  is  doled 
out  to  them.  Where  time  enters  at  all  into  the  measure 
ment  of  the  pay,  the  employers  endeavor  to  stretch  it  with 
out  giving  corresponding  pay.  There  seem  to  be  numerous 
devices  by  which  the  workers  can  be  taken  advantage  of. 
The  character  of  the  work  varies  so  much  in  any  one  trade 
that  it  seems  difficult  to  regulate  the  prices  unless  by  the 
most  iron-clad  arrangement,  backed  by  the  force  of  strong 
organization.  But  the  weakness  of  the  organizations  has 
been  apparent  in  the  past.  Sometimes  they  have  been  affili 
ated  with  one  general  labor  organization,  sometimes 
with  another.  They  are  now  welded  together  under 
x  the  United  Garment  Workers  of  America,  into  which  they 
N^have  gone  during  the  past  few  years.  With  the  exception 
of  the  Cutters'  Union  the  membership  of  these  organiza 
tions  is  almost  entirely  composed  of  Russian  Jews. 

The  competition  of  unorganized  labor,  especially  of  wom 
en  and  of  people  in  the  country  towns,  makes  the  regulation 
of  the  trade  exceedingly  difficult,  and  tqnds,  of  course,  to 
the  aggravation  of  the  conditions  regarding  hours  and 
wages. 

Surveying  the  entire  field,  emphasis  has  been  laid  on  the 
conditions  in  the  needle  industries,  because  of  their  impor 
tance  as  to  the  numbers  dependent  upon  them  and  their 
peculiar  economic  arrangements.  The  displacement  of  the 
outside  shops  alleviates  the  sanitary  and  economic  condi 
tions.  Many  of  the  contractors,  as  foremen  or  superin 
tendents,  are  enabled  to  earn  as  much  in  wages  as  they 
formerly  did  in  a  mad  endeavor  to  obtain  profits ;  and  their 
competition  for  prices  being  removed,  there  is  a  steadier 
regulation '  as  between  the  workers  and  the  manufacturers. 
Factories  as  part  of  the  plant  of  the  manufacturers,  with 
control  by  them,  assisted  by  government  inspection,  and  the 
abrogation  of  the  contractors'  shops,  enable  a  better  regula 
tion  of  hours  and  wages. 

We  have,  then,  a  population  of  much  intellectual  and 
moral  strength  capable  of  large  economic  advance,  requir- 
ing  better  physical  influences  and  checks  on  individualistic 
tendencies. 


(C)  CHICAGO 

Probably  among  no  nationality  does  the  economic  condi 
tion  change  more  rapidly  than  among  the  Russian  Jewish 
people  in  the JSntf^'~Sftfl.tps.  TTm  transition  period  from 
the  junk  peddler  to  the  iron  yard  owner,  from  the  dry 
goods  peddler  to  the  retail  or  wholesale  dry  goods  mer 
chant,  from  the  cloak  maker  to  the  cloak  manufacturer,  is 
comparatively  short.  True,  the  same  causes  which  influ 
ence  trade  and  industry  in  the  economic  world  about  them  / 
also  influence  this  population,  yet  they  seem  able  to  develop  V 
business  methods  of  their  own,  which,  in  many  instances, 
successfully  defy  or  modify  well  established  economic  laws. 
They  can  do  business  with  little  money,  or  practically  no 
money,  right  next  door  to  a  large  house,  ignoring  the  eco 
nomic  rule  that  the  latter,  through  competition,  drives  the 
smaller  house  out  of  business.  They  continue  to  hold  their 
own  in  the  trades  in  which  they  engage,  growing  in 
strength  as  the  years  go  on. 

"  A  Jew  w^uJd-rather- earn -five. dollars  a  week  doing 
business  for  himself  than  ten  dollars  .a  week  working  for 
some  one-jelseT^^was  the  observation  of  an  Irishman  who 
worked  in  the  same  factory  with  me.  This  idea  is  held 
quite  extensively  among  the  Russian  Jewish  people,  as  my 
own  experience  among  them  will  confirm.  Quite  a  large 
proportion  of  the  men  who  worked  with  me  in  the  same 
trade  ten  or  fifteen  years  ago  are  now  in  business  for  them-  ^ 
selves  or  have  entered  professional  life.  Others  have  be 
come  salesmen,  traveling  men,  commission  agents,  insurance 
agents,  and  the  like.  I  have  met  very  few  wage-workers 
among  Russian  Jewish  people  who  regard  it  as  their  perma 
nent  lot  in  life  to  remain  in  the  condition  of  laborers  for 
wage*.  Almost  allare^bending  their  energies  to  get  into 
business  or~lo .  acqulS. „  an  education  so  that  they  may  fit 
themselves  for  some  other  calling  than  that  of  the  wage- 
worker  of  the  ordinary  kind.  More  of  our  boys  and  girls 
who  have  attended  the  public  schools  enter  stores  and  offi 
ces  than  shops  and  factories.  This  is  especially  true  of  the 

135 


136        ECONOMIC  AND  INDUSTRIAL  CONDITION 

more  intelligent  of  the  population.  Among  those  who  stay 
in  the  shops  as  workmen  there  is  a  tendency  to  leave  em 
ployments  which  require  hard  labor. 

Scattered  through  the  industries  in  this  large  city,  Rus 
sian  Jewish  people  are  to  be  found  in  a  large  variety  of 
occupations,  from  the  common  laborers  to  the  highly  skilled 
mechanics.  I  find  them  employed  as  iron  molders,  ma 
chinists,  locomotive  engineers,  sailors,  farm  helpers,  boiler 
makers,  butchers  at  the  stock  yards,  street  sweepers,  section 
hands  on  railroads,  motormen  and  conductors  on  the  street 
cars;  a  number  as  building  laborers — brick  layers,  carpen 
ters,  steam  fitters,  plumbers;  in  bicycle  plating  shops;  in 
manufactories  of  electrical  appliances,  of  iron  beds  and 
springs,  of  shoes,  of  wood  work,  and  of  upholstery;  in  tin, 
mattress  and  picture  frame  factories ;  and  in  bakeries.  But 
the  industries  in  which  they  are  employed  in  the  greatest 
numbers  are  the  sewing  and  cigar  trades. 

I  gather  from  my  connection  with  the  trade  union  move 
ment  and  from  my  observation  while  inspecting  factories 
for  the  state  of  Illinois  for  four  years,  that  the  Russian 
Jewish  people  in  Chicago  have  not  nearly  so  great  an  in 
fluence  on  the  sewing  and  cigar  trades  as  in  the  east,  par- 
|  ticularly  in  New  York.  There  are  eight  non- Jews  to  one 
J  Jew  employed  in  the  needle  industries  in  Chicago.  The 
proportion  of  non-Jews  to  Jews  among  the  cigar  makers  is 
not  quite  so  large.  It  can  only  be  said,  therefore,  that  the 
Russian  Jews  are  an  important  factor  in  these  trades. 
Among  the  mattress  makers,  too,  concerning  trade  regula 
tions,  they  must  be  regarded  as  an  element  to  be  reckoned 
with. 

The  sanitary  condition  of  the  streets,  homes,  and  shops  in 
the  Jewish  settlement  proper  is  rather  bad.  It  does  not 
compare  favorably  with  that  of  the  other  nationalities,  ex- 
\  cept  the  Italian  and  the  Polish,  which  in  some  respects  are 
^  worse.  The  streets  and  homes  of  the  Italians  are  somewhat 
dirtier,  and  the  Polish  crowd  their  people  in  the  shops  and 
homes  more  than  the  Jews.  Compared  with  the  Germans, 
the  Scandinavians,  and  the  Bohemians,  the  Russian  Jews 
make  a  poor  showing,  their  places  of  abode  and  of  work 
being  dirtier  and  more  crowded.  However,  a  change  for 
the  better  is  taking  place,  at  least  in  respect  to  the  sani 
tary  condition  of  the  shops.  Separate  buildings  are  being 
erected,  so  that  before  many  years  we  shall  have  outgrown 
many  abuses  as  to  sanitation.  I  have  known  many  men  to 


CHICAGO  137 

be  willing  to  work  for  smaller  wages  in  better  quarters.  A 
busy  season  with  good  wages  tends  to  improve  the  sanitary 
condition,  whereas  dull  times  and  small  wages  have  a  con 
trary  effect. 

Probably  nowhere  is  the  peculiar  character  of  the  Rus 
sian  Jewish  people  better  to  be  seen  than  in  the  trade  union 
movement,  or  rather,  in  the  absence  of  this  movement.  One 
cannot  ascribe  the  condition  of  the  trade  unions  among 
them  solely  to  their  racial  character,  as  many  other  factors 
help  to  form  their  economic  status  and  its  relations  to  labor 
organizations.  The  nature  of  the  trades  in  which  they  are 
engaged  and  the  helplessness  of  the  majority  of  the  people 
are  among  the  factors  affecting  the  situation. 

One  of  the  main  reasons  why  they  do  not  support  trade 
unions  and  labor  organizations  to  the  same  extent  as  other 
nationalities  seems  to  be  that  most  of  them  do  not  believe  K 
themselves  to  be  working  men- for  life,  nor  do  they  think 
that  they  will  leave  as  &  heritage  to  their  children  the  lot 
of  a  wage-worker.  A  very  large  number  speculate  on  the 
notion  01  opening,  in  course  of  time,  a  shop  for  themselves, 
or  going  into  business  of  some  kind,  or  educating  themselves 
out  of  the  condition  of  the  working  classes.  A  large  part 
of  the  tolerance  of  low  wages,  long  hours  of  work,  and  in 
sanitary  condition  of  the  shops,  that  is,  of  the  tragedy  of 
economic  servitude,  of  poverty,  and  of  suffering,  is  to  be 
ascribed  to  this  state  of  mind. 

Of  other  elements  that  interfere  with  the  chances  of 
effective  organization,  the  fact  that  in  the  sewing  trade 
women  can  and  do  replace  men  must  be  considered.  Es 
pecially  during  strikes  have  they  taken  the  place  of  men  in 
a  large  number  of  cases,  and  have  thrown  Jewish  men  and 
women  out  of  employment.  The  trades  in  which  the  Rus 
sian  Jews  are  largely  engaged  are  easily  learned,  especially 
by  women  and  children,  so  that  there  is  a  constant  re 
cruiting  of  newcomers  of  all  nationalities,  thus  overstock 
ing  the  trades  with  labor. 

Generally  speaking,  the  sewing  trades  in  this  city  are  in 
a  deplorable  state.  There  is  little  organization  among  the 
workmen.  The  reason  for  this  among  the  Jewish  people 
is  not  the  same  as  among  other  nationalities.  With  the 
Poles  and  some  of  the  Germans  and  Bohemians,  the  church 
and  the  priests  are  factors  in  keeping  them  in  an  ignorant, 
helpless,  and  "  scabbing  "  state  of  mind,  but  the  Jewish 
people  are  clever  and  quite  well  informed,  so  that  the  cause 


138       ECONOMIC  AND  INDUSTEIAL  CONDITION 

has  been  not  ignorance  but  unwillingness  to  make  the 
sacrifice  necessary  to  bring  about  successful  organization. 
There  is,  however,  some  change  for  the  better  in  progress. 
V  They  are  beginning  to  realize,  slowly,  but  surely,  that  their 
hope  economically,  lies  in  alliance  with  the  labor  unions  and 
the  socialist  movement,  and  they  will  become  a  factor,  I  be 
lieve,  in  establishing  the  state  of  affairs  in  which  labor 
will  be  free  and  receive  what  it  produces. 

It  should  be  noted,  too,  in  modification  of  the  general 
statement  as  to  unwillingness  to  organize :  First,  that 
during  actual  strikes  Jews  have  been  much  more  loyal 
and  self  sacrificing  than  other  nationalities.  I  know  of 
many  men,  who,  during  strikes,  with  no  bread  for  them 
selves  or  their  families,  attended  meetings  and  insisted 
on  holding  out  until  the  strike  was  won.  Second,  a  large 
number  are  in  unions  of  their  trades,  and  many  are  ac 
tive  in  leadership.  Third,  in  the  socialist  movement,  a  few 
have  been  very  active  and  have  carried  on  propaganda  at 
a  great  sacrifice. 

In  all  there  are  probably  4,000  Russian  Jews  engaged  in 
the  sewing  trades  in  Chicago,  less  than  one-eighth  of  the 
total.  The  majority  of  men  employees  have  an  income  of 
from  $400  to  $600  per  year.  Several  hundred  Russian 
Jews  are  either  contractors  or  manufacturers.  The  Jewish 
contractor  who  employs  Jewish  help  is  not  so  prosperous, 
as  a  rule,  as  his  neighbor,  the  Jewish  contractor  who  em 
ploys  Gentile  help,  or  the  Gentile  contractor.  The  reason 
seems  to  be  that  among  the  Poles  and  Bohemians,  of  whom 
there  are  many  in  these  trades,  women  and  children  are 
employed  to  a  much  greater  extent  than  among  the  Jews, 
and  one  cannot  get  adult  males  to  work  as  cheaply  as  wom 
en  and  children.  A  number  of  Jewish  contractors  have 
\  moved  into  neighborhoods  where  they  are  enabled  to  em 
ploy  Polish,  German,  and  Bohemian  women  and  children, 
and  they  are  prospering.  But  those  who  are  in  the  First 
Ward,  or  in  the  Jewish  district,  are  simply  making  a  living 
a  little  better  than  their  employees. 

About  1,500  of  those  in  the  sewing  trades  are  engaged 
in  "country  order "  coat  making,  a  cheaper  grade  of  cus 
tom  coat  making.  The  work  is  done  according  to  the  fac 
tory  system  of  division  of  labor,  as  distinguished  from  cus 
tom  work,  in  which  the  tailor  makes  the  whole  garment. 
During  the  past  three  years,  the  employees  have  had  work 
from  six  to  nine  months  in  the  year.  They  have  earned 


CHICAGO  139 

about  the  following  wages.  Operators  from  $11  to  $25 
per  week;  helpers  (to  operators),  from  $5  to  $12  per 
week;  basters,  from  $10  to  $18  per  week;  helpers  (to  bast- 
ers),  from  $5  to  $10  per  week;  pressers,  from  $10  to  $18 
per  week;  helpers  (to  pressers),  from  $4  to  $8  per  week. 
The  high  priced  men  are  about  as  one  to  four  in  a  shop. 
The  cutters  in  this  trade  receive  about  $15  to  $18  per  week, 
and  the  designers  and  foremen  from  $30  to  $40  per  week. 
There  is  no  union  in  the  trade,  excepting  a  small  mutual 
benefit  society.  This  trade  competes  successfully,  I  think, 
with  the  country  merchant  tailoring  and  with  ready-made 
manufacture  of  clothing.  During  busy  season  the  hours 
are  long,  as  high  as  twelve  and  thirteen  hours  a  day.  The 
work  is  mostly  piece  work.  This  and  cloak  making  are 
considered  the  best  of  the  sewing  trades.  Polish  and  Bo 
hemian  women  and  children  compete  as  workers,  but  the 
Jewish  men  are  holding  their  own  as  yet,  because  they 
can  adjust  themselves  better  to  the  seasons  of  the  trade. 

It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  rates  of  payment  here 
given  are  for  a  full  week's  work.  Therefore  an  operator 
who  earns  $11  in  a  full  week  will  not  earn  more  than 
between  $300  and  $350  in  a  year  or  an  average  of  between 
$6  and  $7  per  week.  The  same  applies  to  the  other  classes 
of  workmen,  so  that  the  average  weekly  wages  are  much 
lower  than  would  appear  on  the  face  of  things. 

The  next  division  is  the  ready-made  coat  making  trade. 
In  the  past  few  years  the  Jews  have  been  replaced  by  Poles 
and  Bohemians,  so  that  there  are  not  more  than  about  300 
of  the  former.  There  were  formerly  about  1,000.  Their 
wages  are  considerably  less  than  those  of  the  "country 
order  "  division,  operators  being  paid  from  $10  to  $15 
per  week,  basters  from  $9  to  $13  per  week,  pressers  the 
same  as  basters,  helpers  ranging  from  $4  to  $9  per  week, 
hand  sewers  from  $2  to  $8  per  week.  There  are  about  nine 
or  ten  months'  work  in  a  year.  An  operator  earns,  there 
fore,  about  $400  per  year  on  the  average,  which  is  equal  to 
$8  per  week.  The  average  weekly  earnings  for  the  other 
workmen  are  subject  to  a  corresponding  reduction. 

Both  in  the  ready-made  and  in  the  country  order,  the 
machines  are  run  by  foot  power.  The  shops,  as  a  rule, 
are  not  in  very  good  condition. 

About  200  Russian  Jews  are  employed  as  custom  coat 
makers  proper,  working  for  merchant  tailors.  They  make 


140       ECONOMIC  AND  INDUSTRIAL  CONDITION 

the  whole  garment.  Their  earnings  are  from  $12  to  $18 
per  week  and  they  work  about  nine  months  a  year. 

These  and  workers  in  the  country  order  division  often 

become  small  merchant  tailors,  both  in   Chicago   and  in 

/  the  country  towns.     Some  have  become  well-to-do.     Among 

them  are  merchant  tailors  in  prominent  sections  of  the  city 

worth  from  $10,000  to  $15,000. 

There  are  about  250  Russian  Jews  among  the  ladies' 
tailors,  making  both  suits  and  outer  garments  to  measure. 
The  operators  earn  from  $15  to  $20  per  week  and  have 
from  six  to  nine  months'  work  in  the  year.  The  yearly 
earnings  are,  therefore,  from  $400  to  $700,  or  an  average 
of  from  $8  to  $14  per  week.  A  large  number  keep  shops 
for  themselves  and  are  doing  a  good  business.  One  has 
acquired  about  $20,000  worth  of  property  during  the  past 
eight  years.  The  foremen,  designers,  and  cutters  in  this 
trade  receive  about  $30  per  week. 

Ladies'  cloaks  and  suit  making  is  quite  a  large  industry 
among  the  population  we  are  describing.  About  800  are 
employed  in  it.  This  is  a  season  trade,  with  good  wages 
in  the  busy  season  and  very  low  wages  in  the  dull  season. 
In  the  cheaper  and  partly  in  the  medium  grades  of  this 
business,  the  Jews  have  lost  their  hold  during  the  last  few 
years.  This  is  due  to  the  establishment  of  shops  employ 
ing  girls,  among  the  Polish  and  Bohemian  people.  In 
the  better  grades  they  still  hold  on.  In  these,  during  the 
busy  season,  they  earn  from  $12  to  $25  a  week,  in  slack 
season  from  $9  to  $14  a  week,  working  mostly  ten  hours 
per  day.  There  is  about  eight  months'  work. 

Steam  is  being  introduced  in  place  of  foot  power,  so 
that  if  the  Jewish  people  are  not  replaced  by  women  this 
trade  seems  likely  to  offer  them  a  decent  livelihood. 
Women  earn  from  $4  to  $9  per  week.  It  should  be  noted, 
too,  that  competition  with  New  York  affects  this  trade. 

No  trade  requires  the  influence  of  a  labor  organization 
more  than  this.  The  cloak  makers  lost  a  severely  con 
tested  strike  several  years  ago  and  they  do  not  seem  to 
have  been  able  to  organize  themselves  since  that  time. 
There  are  about  50  Eussian  Jewish  cloak  cutters  who  are 
paid  about  $18  per  week.  A  number  of  the  designers  are 
from  this  population.  Their  wages  are  $50  a  week  and 
upwards.  Some  of  the  Eussian  Jewish  people  have  gone 
into  the  manufacture  of  cloaks  on  a  small  scale.  The 
wealthiest  is  worth  probably  $10,000. 


CHICAGO  141 

The  cap  makers  are  doing  fairly  well.  They  earn  from 
$9  to  $18  per  week.  They  seem  to  have  withstood  the 
competition  of  women.  When  they  have  saved  from  $200 
to  $300  they  open  shops  of  their  own.  There  are  about  200 
employers.  The  wealthiest  is  worth  in  the  neighborhood 
of  $10,000. 

The  children's  coats,  the  men's  trousers,  the  knee  pants, 
the  overalls,  and  the  shirt  trades  seem  to  be  the  poorest 
the  population  are  engaged  in.  Operators  in  these  trades 
earn  from  $5  to  $11  per  week,  with  about  nine  months' 
work  throughout  the  year;  girls  (helpers)  from  $2  to  $5 
per  week;  pressers  from  $5  to  $9  per  week,  working  about 
the  same  time. 

Most  of  the  contractors  who  employ  Jewish  help  are 
poor  men  themselves.  Two  or  three  who  employ  Polish 
girls  have  made  enough  money  to  earn  their  homes  and 
shops.  Those  who  have  gone  into  the  business  of  man 
ufacturing  knee  pants,  pants,  overalls,  and  children 's  cloth 
ing  have,  in  a  number  of  cases,  done  better.  The  wealthiest 
is  probably  worth  about  $10,000.  Altogether,  there  are 
about  400  Russian  Jews  in  these  trades. 

Furriers  are  earning  from  $12  to  $18  per  week  and  work 
about  nine  months  in  the  year.  There  are  about  50  Eussian 
Jews  among  them. 

To  summarize  the  history  of  the  trade  union  movement 
in  the  foregoing  trades :  The  cloak  makers  had  an  organ 
ization  ten  years,  disbanded,  and  reorganized.  They  had  a 
number  of  strikes.  The  influence  of  the  union  on  the  trade 
was  beneficial.  From  1881  to  1889,  the  workers  were  em 
ployed  from  twelve  to  sixteen  hours  per  day.  The  union 
and  the  strikes  brought  down  the  working  day  to  nine  or 
ten  hours.  Wages  are  better  than  they  were  in  those  years. 

The  cloak  makers'  union  was  the  first  to  have  a  public 
meeting  to  protest  against  sweatshops  and  the  employ 
ment  of  children,  and  together  with  the  central  labor 
organization,  Mrs.  Florence  Kelley  and  residents  of  Hull 
House,  succeeded  in  having  a  law  passed  prohibiting  the 
employment  of  children  under  fourteen  years  of  age,  and 
the  employment  at  trade  in  one 's  own  home  of  persons  other 
than  members  of  the  family. 

The  coat  makers  had  an  organization  which  was  help 
ful  in  the  improvement  of  their  economic  condition,  but 
a  lost  strike  broke  them  up.  Bohemians,  Germans,  and 
Jews  were  organized  in  the  trade.  Through  a  lock-out  of 


142       ECONOMIC  AND  INDUSTRIAL  CONDITION 

the  clothing  cutters,  in  1897,  the  unions  were  forced  out 
on  strike,  and  after  six  weeks  were  defeated  by  the  manu 
facturers,  who  were  able  to  replace  the  men  by  women's 
labor,  half-Americanized,  and  newly-arrived  foreign  la 
bor. 

Knee  pants  makers,  pants  makers  and  children's  coat 
makers  were  also  organized,  and  their  organizations  were 
rendered  useless  through  similar  agencies. 

In  the  cigar  and  tobacco  trades,  there  are  in  this  city 
about  2,400  Russian  Jews.  A  fair  proportion  are  in  busi- 
ness  for  themselves,  as  store  keepers  or  manufacturers 
or  both.  About  1,500  men  and  500  women  cigar  makers 
earn  from  $300  to  $600  per  year.  A  large  number  who 
work  in  the  heart  of  the  Jewish  district  earn  only  about 
$300  to  $400.  Persons  learning  the  trade  earn  $3,  $4  and 
$5  a  week.  There  is  employment  about  nine  months  in 
the  year.  During  the  crisis  from  1893  to  1897  there 
was  work  for  not  more  than  four  or  five  months  in  the 
year,  and  the  wages  were  lower  per  week. 

There  are  a  comparatively  small  number  of  Russian  Jew 
ish  workers  in  the  cigarmakers'  union,  about  200  out  of 
a  total  membership  of  1,800.  One  reason  is  that  the  cigars 
made  in  the  Jewish  district  are  of  a  cheaper  grade  than  is 
provided  for  in  the  union  scale.  Then,  too,  in  the  large 
cigar  factories,  which  do  not  employ  union  help,  they  work 
with  other  nationalities.  The  difference  between  the  union 
price  and  the  factory  price  is  large,  from  $3  to  $7  per  thou 
sand.  The  union  has  had  several  strikes  in  these  factories 
and  has  lost  each  time.  Most  of  the  cigars  in  Chicago  are 
made  in  the  large  factories.  Employment  in  the  factories 
is  steadier  than  in  the  small  union  shops.  The  union 
keeps  its  wages  for  labor  so  high  because  there  is  a  large 
demand  for  the  union  label.  One  of  the  reasons  why  the 
price  of  labor  in  the  non-union  shops  is  so  low  is  because 
the  trade  is  comparatively  easy  to  learn,  and  women  and 
children  can  take  the  place  of  men. 

Probably  the  wealthiest  Russian  Jewish  cigar  manu 
facturer  is  worth  about  $20,000,  and  from  this  one  they 
run  down  to  the  man  who  keeps  shop  at  night  and  works 
in  a  factory  during  the  day,  or  for  whom  the  wife  keeps 
a  little  store  while  he  works  out. 

The  business  of  manufacturing  cigarettes  and  smoking 
tobacco  employs  about  200  Russian  Jews.  The  workers 
barely  make  a  living.  Men  earn  from  $7  to  $12  a  week; 


CHICAGO  143 

girls  from  $4  to  $8.  The  employers  are  only  moderately 
thriving,  as  the  revenue  and  municipal  taxes  heavily  affect 
their  incomes. 

There  are  about  80  Russian  Jewish  mattress  makexs. 
They  earn:  men  from  $9  to  $14;  women,  from  $4  to  $8 
per  week.  Jews  have  displaced  other  nationalities  in  this 
trade,  mainly  the  Irish.  They  were  organized  with  other 
nationalities  in  a  union.  A  union  label  was  introduced, 
wages  were  raised,  and  the  union  was  maintained  for 
three  years.  Then,  through  the  machinations  of  some 
of  the  employers,  the  union  was  split  and  two  organiza 
tions  were  formed,  one  composed  of  Jews  and  one  of  non- 
Jews.  The  Jewish  union  joined  hands  with  the  employers 
and  formed  what  was  really  a  ' '  scab  ' '  organization. 

The  Russian  Jewish  bakers  number  about  50  in  all. 
They  work  unreasonably  long  hours  for  very  small  wages 
—  about  $5  to  $13  a  week  —  in  very  bad  bake-shops.  They 
established  a  union  several  times,  but  were  disorganized 
for  a  reason  similar  to  the  one  just  described:  Jewish 
employers  introduced  non-Jews  and  kept  the  good  union 
men  out  of  work  for  a  long  time. 

From  400  to  600  are  in  the  picture  ..frame,-  tin  can,  and 
bicycle  factories.  They  earn  from  $7  to  $15  a  week  and 
assimilate  quite  rapidly  with  other  nationalities  in  the 
trades.  Some  of  the  large  picture  frame  factories  and 
quite  a  number  of  picture  frame  stores  are  owned  by  Rus 
sian  Jews.  It  is  said  some  of  the  owners  are  worth  $100,- 
000. 

In  the  professions,  there  are  a  number  of  physicians,  </ 
dentists,  lawyers  and  teachers. 

There  are  also  mail  carriers,  post-office  clerks,  and  hold-  \s 
ers  of  office  under  the  state  and  city  governments. 

Perhaps  from  2,500  to  3,000  are  clerks  in  stores  and  of 
fices,  book-keepers,  stock  keepers  and  in  kindred  occupa 
tions,  ranging  from  the  lowest  paid  shipping  clerk  to  the 
high-salaried  department  store  manager.  One  is  supposed 
to  attain  business  training  in  the  stores  and  offices,  and 
there  is  a  tendency  to  overstock  this  class  of  help,  so  the 
good  salesman  or  good  book-keeper  is  likely  to  receive  a 
smaller  salary  than  an  experienced  mechanic  or  worker  at 
a  trade. 

Among  the  peddlers  and  small  store-keepers,  the  rag  ped-\/ 
dlers  form  the  largest  group.     Most  of  them  are  very  poor  v 
and  hard  working;  they  earn  a  precarious  livelihood.     I 


144       ECONOMIC  AND  INDUSTRIAL  CONDITION 

am  told  there  are  about  2,000.  Very  few  of  their  chil 
dren  follow  in  their  footsteps;  most  work  in  stores  and 
some  in  factories.  From  the  rag  peddling  business  about 
200  have  become  rag  store-keepers.  A  large  proportion  of 
these  own  their  own  homes.  The  wealthiest  is  said  to  be 
worth  about  $20,000.  The  rag  store  cannot  well  be  es 
tablished  with  a  capital  of  less  than  about  $400. 

Some  95  per  cent,  of  the  peddlers  own  their  own  horse 
and  wagon;  some  of  them,  however,  are  so  poor  that  they 
live  partially  on  charity.  The  majority  work  in  the  city, 
but  a  portion  ply  their  trade  in  the  neighboring  country 
towns. 

Closely  related  to  the  above  are  the  old  iron, ^dealers  and 
peddlers.  In  fact,  a  rag  dealer  will  often  also  deal  in 
old  iron,  furniture,  clothing,  etc.  But  the  old  iron  dealer 
is  a  sort  of  merchant,  buying  and  selling  iron  and  metal 
only.  There  are  several  hundred  of  these.  Their  earnings 
are  higher  than  those  of  the  rag  peddlers.  A  number 
own  their  own  homes  and  are  quite  prosperous.  In  their 
case  the  children  are  generally  absorbed  into  other  oc 
cupations. 

The  iron  yard  owners  are  a  prosperous  class.  Some 
are  reputed  to  be  worth  over  $200,000.  They  do  an  exten 
sive  business.  They  are  generally  former  iron  or  junk 
dealers. 

Dealers  in  old  bottles  buy  their  goods  from  the  rag  ped 
dlers.  Their  business  has  been  developed  only  in  the  past 
few  years.  There  are  but  15  or  20  in  the  city  and  they  are 
doing  well,  several  being  worth  as  much  at  $20,000,  I  am 
told. 

Second-hand  furniture  store-keepers  buy  their  goods,  too, 
mostly  at  the  rag  peddlers.  There  are  about  20  or  30  and 
they  are  making  a  fair  living. 

Of  the  fruit  and  market  peddlers  there  are  about  1,000. 
As  they  have  not  much  to  do  in  the  winter,  many  go  into 
the  delivery  business.  In  season  they  can  earn  from  $20 
to  $35  per  week.  But  as  they  are  idle  a  great  part  of  the 
year  their  average  earnings  are  very  low,  and  they  are 
really  poor  people.  Only  a  few  are  comparatively  well-to- 
do,  and  own  their  homes.  Some  develop  into  grocery  store 
keepers.  Very  few  of  the  children  of  these  peddlers  fol 
low  the  occupation  of  their  fathers. 

The  dry  goods  peddlers  seem  to  have  lost  ground  during 
the  last  few  years,  but  there  are  still  several  hundred.  I 


CHICAGO  145 

presume  the  department  stores  and  mail  order  houses  af 
fect  their  business.  Their  business  is  done  mostly  among 
the  foreign  population  of  the  city.  Some,  however,  do 
peddling  in  the  country,  but  keep  their  families  in  the 
city.  With  few  exceptions,  these  are  quite  poor,  barely 
making  a  living.  Yet  from  this  class  are  developed  the 
dry  goods  merchants,  wholesale  and  retail,  who  establish 
themselves  in  the  city  and  through  the  country  towns. 
Some  of  the  wholesale  merchants  have  grown  to  be  wealthy. 
In  a  few  instances  they  are  worth  several  hundred  thou 
sand  dollars.  One  house,  I  am  informed,  did  a  business  of 
$8,000,000  last  year,  employing  over  a  thousand  persons. 
Most  of  those  who  have  established  places  in  small  towns 
are  doing  well,  and  some  have  broadened  their  business 
into  department  stores. 

From  a  thousand  to  fifteen  hundred  families  are  sup 
ported  from  dry  goods,  notions,  and  gentlemen's  furnish 
ing  goods  stores.  The  children  receive  a  good  education, 
and  often  enter  offices  as  clerks,  book-keepers,  and  the  like. 

Only  about  20  are  in  the  furniture  business.  Some 
two  or  three  have  grown  well-to-do,  the  wealthiest  being 
worth  about  $25,000. 

Some  of  the  clothing  store-keepers  in  the  First  Ward  in 
the  centre  of  the  business  district  are  doing  an  extensive 
business.  One  is  worth,  perhaps,  $50,000.  Not  more  than 
about  30  keep  clothing  stores  proper,  as  distinct  from  sec 
ond-hand  stores  or  pawn  shops,  selling  clothing. 

There  are  some  20  or  30  shoe  store-keepers.  None  are 
wealthy.  A  few  are  worth  from  $2,000  to  $3,000  and 
the  rest  are  doing  fairly  well. 

There  are  a  large  number  of  store-keepers  of  various 
kinds  throughout  the  city,  selling  crockery,  ten  cent  goods, 
hats,  etc. 

About  100  Russian  Jews  are  in  the  saloon  business  and 
are  making  a  good  living. 

To  me  several  points  have  established  themselves  quite 
clearly  in  this  inquiry.  In  factories  labor  is  divided  so 
minutely  that  the  work  is  very  monotonous.  As  a  con 
sequence  the  Russian  Jewish  people,  who  as  a  rule  are 
intelligent,  will  not  continue  to  labor  in  factories  and  work 
shops,  but  will  go  into  business,  distributive  occupations,  or 
professions.  If,  therefore,  a  condition  arose  under  which 
there  would  be  no  further  immigration  I  believe  that  within 
the  next  twenty-five  or  thirty  years  but  a  small  number  of 


146       ECONOMIC  AND  INDUSTRIAL  CONDITION 

;he  Russian  Jewish  people  would  be  found  as  wage  workers 
n  factories.  But  since  immigration  every  year  brings  a 
arge  number  into  this  country,  the  very  poor  are  by  force 
of  circumstances  compelled  to  begin  as  wage  workers.  The 
transition  from  this  position  to  that  of  the  merchant  and 
;he  professional  man  will,  therefore,  be  continuous,  at  least 
for  some  time  to  come. 

It  should  be  added  that  at  the  present  time  Russian  Jews 
are  covering  the  country  as  small  merchants  and  are  de 
veloping  into  business  men  for  the  sale  of  clothing,  dry 
goods,  furniture,  and  the  like. 

In  my  judgment,  the  establishment  of  industrial  schools 
to  which  Jewish  people  could  readily  go  would  be  very 
lelpful  in  diversifying  their  occupations.     With  their  wit 
md  ability  the  Russian  Jews  ought  to  be  able  to  develop 
in  scientific  and  mechanical  pursuits.     In  the  process  of 
ivilization  they  would  become  much  more  important  fac 
tors  if  they  proceeded  to  qualify  themselves  along  such 
ines.     I  find,  however,  that  among  graduates  of  our  scien 
tific  and  mechanical  schools,  through  lack  of  the  proper  in 
fluence,  it  is  often  difficult  to  get  a  good  footing,  and  this 
tends  to  abate  the  desire  to  prepare  for  such  pursuits. 


o 
O 


O 


I 


V 
KELIGIOUS  ACTIVITY 


RELIGIOUS  ACTIVITY 

(A)  NEW  YORK 

The  subject  of  this  inquiry  is  rather  difficult,  owing  to 
the  complexity  of  its  elements  and  the  diversity  of  defini 
tions  given  to  religion. 

There  ^are  two  conceptions  of  religion  involved  in  this 
subject,  interwoven  with  the  intensely  interesting  psychol 
ogy  of  the  Jew.  They  are  found  side  by  side  in  the  same 
household  and,  consciously  or  unconsciously,  are  strug 
gling  for  supremacy.  The  one  has  pressed  itself  into  the 
very  life  of  the  older  generation,  and  the  other  is  as  yet 
an  inchoate  view  —  which  has  had  no  vital  and  permanent 
influence  on  the  lives  of  those  who  hold  it. 

That  of  the  older  generation  amounts  to  this:  Judaism 
is  a  religion  with  its  centre  in  the  synagogue  and  ramifica 
tions  in  every  department  of  life  —  in  business,  in  the 
home,  in  society.  Affiliation  with  the  synagogue  is  essen 
tial  to  a  member  of  the  Jewish  religion.  The  Jew  who 
attains  the  proper  age  at  once  enters  upon  the  responsibili 
ties  of  his  Jewish  citizenship,  and  ipso  facto  becomes  a 
member  of  a  religion  which  requires  obedience  to  law.  Tra 
ditions  are  not  only  a  heritage  —  the  subject  of  scholarly 
research  —  but  an  ever  present  and  active  influence  on 
every  day  life.  Religion  is  the  greatest  part  of  life  and 
the  synagogue  the  register  in  which  every  family  enters 
its  name. 

Had  only  this  conception  of  religion  existed  with  us  in 
New  York,  there  would  have  been  no  difficulty  in  ascer 
taining  the  numerical  strength  of  those  affiliated  with  re 
ligion  by  means  of  a  census  of  the  Jewish  community.  But 
with  the  Jews,  and  especially  with  that  Jewish  community 
to  which  reference  has  been  made,  there  never  has  been 
self-consciousness  enough  to  produce  a  desire  to  make  a 
numerical  estimate  of  its  strength,  except  when  required 
by  the  law  of  the  land. 

148 


NEW  YOBK  149 

Now,  the  East  Side  is  the  battle  ground  where  this  old 
representation  of  religion,  accepted  by  the  old  generation,  •/ 
meets  in  conflict  with  a  new  conception,  as  yet  unorgan 
ized,  feeble  and  vague,  which  is  held  by  the  new  gen 
eration. 

Conflict  is  to  be  expected  in  every  progressive  com 
munity.  The  conflict  in  the  Jewish  community  of  thev 
great  metropolis  is  abnormally  intensified  by  the  various 
democratic  influences  which  radiate  from  the  community  at 
large  and  which  effectively  bring  about  the  assimilation 
of  the  more_ada^able  individuals. 

What  is  the  attitude  of  the  old  generation  to  the  forces 
that  are  sweeping  away  their  offspring  from  the  ancient 
strongholds?  Seldom  is  it  on  their  part  more  than  mere 
lamentation.  They  acquiesce  in  the  inevitable  and  only  be 
rate  the  modern  spirit  which  is  radically  undermining  their 
influence. 

The  older  generation  of  Russian  'Jews  show  a  lack  of  or 
ganizing  power  and  not  even  the  new  influences  of  a  demo 
cratic  city  have  resulted  in  giving  them  that  power.  With 
them,  the  new  generation  is  incorrigible  and  they  accept 
this  fact  with  the  fatalistic  resignation  of  the  oriental. 
They  do  not  understand  the  new  world. 

The  position  of  the  newcomer  to  New  York  city  is  impos 
sible  of  conception  by  the  ordinary  observer.  The  stand 
ard  of  monarchy  must  give  way  to  that  of  democracy; 
authority  is  displaced  by  sectional  anarchy.  Communal N 
pride  of  a  petty  sort  impresses  the  foreign  Jew  with  the 
necessity  of  joining  a  synagogue,  but  he  finds  very  soon 
that  the  necessity  is  not  so  forceful  as  he  had  at  first  sup 
posed. 

The  effect  of  this  change  in  standards  is  to  be  seen  in 
the  medley  of  congregations  which  may  be  found  in  the 
city  of  New  York,  each  with  its  limited  territory  and  its 
ignorance  of  the  others.  Instead  of  one  compact  Jewish  i 
community  with  an  organized  centre  we  see  group  after 
group  forming  on  the  basis  of  democracy,  with  a  steady 
defiance  of  all  ecclesiastical  authority  beyond  its  own  boun 
daries. 

In  the  recent  history  of  the  Jewish  community  down 
town  this  group-anarchy  may  be  noted  by  a  few  illustra 
tions.  The  Suwalker  Chevra  does  not  recognize  the  au 
thority  of  the  Rev.  So-and-So.  The  Roumanians  settled 
themselves  in  the  upper  part  of  down-town  and  are  clearly 


150  RELIGIOUS  ACTIVITY 

a  distinct  clan.  The  immigrants  from  Suwalk,  Minsk, 
Odessa,  etc.,  have  their  own  congregations. 

Formerly  the  rabbi  of  a  congregation  enjoyed  his  prerog 
atives  with  a  feeling  of  power  and  a  knowledge  that  obe 
dience  to  law  as  interpreted  by  him  was  the  one  evidence 
of  the  true  Jewish  heart.  In  the  loose  community  of  New 
York  the  same  rabbi  found  rival  authorities,  and  —  more 
important  than  all  —  a  positive  dislike  of  rabbinical  au 
thority  not  the  free  choice  of  the  layman.  America  means 
to  orthodoxy  the  breaking  up  of  old  communities,  and  the 
consequent  attempt  to  establish  a  community  with  elements 
representing  various  local  traditions  and  habits. 

It  will  be  of  interest  to  note  that  practically  all  the  con 
gregations  have  adopted  the  ceremonies  of  the  old  syna 
gogue,  with  very  slight  modifications  —  each  with  its  own 
idiosyncracies.  The  ritual  is  practically  the  same,  except 
in  a  sermon  now  and  then,  on  a  special  occasion.  The  ser 
mon,  or  derasha,  is  usually  given  before  the  afternoon  serv 
ices.  The  preachers,  or  maggidim,  are  seldom  perma 
nently  connected  with  any  one  synagogue ;  they  travel  from 
one  congregation  to  another  and  receive  their  compensa 
tion  by  collections  from  the  faithful  the  day  following  the 
sermon.  Few  of  these  synagogues  have  religious  schools 
connected  with  them,  and  even  the  chedarim  (schools), 
which  were  often  in  the  old  country  part  of  the  synagogue, 
are  here,  with  a  few  exceptions,  usually  entirely  severed. 
The  organization  of  modern  children's  schools  is  opposed 
by  virtually  all  the  modern  orthodox  synagogues.  The  op 
position  is  based  on  the  fear  that  is  felt  for  all  innovations. 

The  down-town  synagogues  are  really  institutional 
churches.  An  enumeration  of  the  activities  connected  with 
the  Forsyth  Street  synagogue  will  show  this.  It  has  a 
chevra  kadisha,  consisting  of  over  twenty  members,  who 
perform  all  the  rites  connected  with  the  burial  of  the  mem 
bers  of  the  congregation:  the  chevra  is  social,  for  it  gives 
banquets  very  often;  on  certain  Sabbaths,  its  members 
are  accorded  privileges  at  the  reading  of  the  law.  The 
same  synagogue  has  organized  a  chevra  schas  or  mish- 
nayoth.  This  society  has  forty  or  fifty  members,  and 
there  are  no  dues;  the  members  study  the  Talmud  every 
evening  in  the  vestry  rooms  of  the  synagogue.  The  La 
dies '  Benevolent  Society  consists  of  over  one  hundred  and 
fifty  members ;  the  dues  are  paid  monthly,  and  are  devoted 
to  charity.  The  congregation  is  interested  in  distributing 


NEW  YORK  151 

matzoth  during  Passover.  On  specified  Sabbaths  prom 
ises  of  gifts  are  made  for  the  Beth  Israel  Hospital,  the 
Machsike  Talmud  Torah  of  the  East  Side,  and  other  good 
works  that  may  be  brought  to  the  attention  of  the  congre 
gation.  The  synagogue  supports  a  rabbi,  a  cantor  or 
chazan,  and  a  choir,  and  its  doors  are  open  for  worship 
morning  and  evening  of  every  day.  Its  rabbi  has  no  di 
rect  supervision  over  the  slaughterers  of  meat ;  this  matter 
is  in  the  hands  of  other  communal  functionaries.  The 
membership  of  the  congregation  is  150  and  its  annual  in 
come  is  seven  thousand  dollars. 

Though  the  synagogue  is  not  directly  interested  in  the 
chedarim,  the  old  generation  shows  its  influence  in  the 
numerous  chedarim  with  which  the  East  Side  is  dotted — • 
all  conducted  strictly  on  old  country  methods.  Children  of 
a  very  tender  age  are  admitted  to  these  schools  and  some 
ambitious  parents  send  their  offspring  to  a  cheder  even 
before  it  has  attended  a  public  school.  The  methods  of 
instruction  are  as  antiquated  as  one  could  imagine.  The 
first  years  are  devoted  to  teaching  the  art  of  reading,  then 
translations  and  finally  the  study  of  the  Talmud.  The 
drill  is  continuous  and  wearing.  Specimens  of  children 
who  attend  these  chedarim  are  not  at  all  creditable  as  mod 
els  of  physical  development.  The  cheder-bred  youth  has 
his  ear-marks,  of  which  he  is  unable  to  rid  himself  even 
when  fully  grown.  The  schoolrooms  are  insanitary  and 
often  a  menace  to  health,  but  from  the  opposition  of  the 
patrons  of  these  schools,  one  would  gather  that  just  these 
features  —  the  incessant  drill,  the  long  hours,  the  lack 
of  ventilation,  the  crowdedness,  are  essential.  It  has  been 
estimated  that  these  schools  on  the  East  Side  are  equal  to 
the  number  of  congregations;  but  figures  cannot  tell  us 
anything  of  value  in  this  respect,  because  the  number  of 
retired  rabbis,  chazanim  (cantors)  and  schochtim  (official 
slaughterers),  who  earn  a  pittance  by  instructing  children, 
cannot  be  counted;  they  are  hidden  away  in  the  recesses 
of  many  a  tenement. 

The  older  generation  shows  its  influence  also  in  the 
Gemilath  Chasodim  Society,  which  is  an  altogether  admir 
able  society  for  the  loaning  of  money  to  poor  borrowers; 
but  this  society,  it  must  be  confessed,  would  have  been 
of  very  little  influence  were  it  not  for  the  substantial 
assistance  it  received  and  still  receives  from  gentlemen  con 
nected  with  the  up-town  organizations. 


152  EELIGIOUS  ACTIVITY 

\J  What  is  the  attitude  of  this  older  generation  to  reform? 

It  is  clearly  and  unmistakably  orthodox,  and  has  not 
been  as  yet  touched  in  the  least  by  the  reform  wave  which 
has  swept  over  the  German  communities.  If  anything,  the 
German  reform  movement  appeals  to  very  few  —  even 
of  the  more  advanced  class  in  the  down-town  population. 
The  repulse  of  the  Russian  community  by  the  German  con 
gregations,  though  not  meant,  has  resulted  in  a  feeling  of 
distrust  and  dislike  on  the  part  of  those  who  live  down 
town.  As  a  result,  anything  that  may  be  attributed  to 
German  reform  is  at  once  discountenanced  by  those  who 
are  in  charge  of  down-town  affairs,  or  who  may  contem 
plate  certain  innovations.  The  old  cling  tenaciously  to 
all  the  customs  possible  of  realization  and  form  a  com- 
'  pact  and  immovable  opposition  to  progress. 

Yet  the  orthodox  elements  represent  all  the  organized 
forces  of  religion  down-town,  with  the  exception  of  one 
or  two  societies  which  we  shall  mention  hereafter. 

It  would  be  a  narrow  mind,  however,  that  would  look 
only  to  the  organized  expression  of  religion  for  a  com 
plete  inventory  of  the  religious  life  of  any  community. 
Generally  in  every  active  community  there  is  an  under 
tow  of  radicalism  which  in  its  essence  is  religious  and 
which  because  of  the  unpalatable  form  which  religion 
takes  with  the  orthodox,  finds  it  impossible  to  affiliate. 

The  organized  religious  community  is  generally  one-third 
dead.  That  proportion  of  its  adherents  are  successfully 
ossified.  Another  third  is  composed  of  sluggish  minds, 
or  those  whom  habit  conquers,  who  cannot  conceive  of 
anything  new.  The  other  one-third  is  composed  of  the 
hangers-on,  who  are  neither  here  nor  there  —  too  weak  to 
organize  on  their  own  platform  and  too  timid  to  tear  away 
entirely  from  the  old. 

A  large  majority  of  the  younger  people  of  the  East  Side 
are  fully  impregnated  with  genuine  religious  feeling.  They 
are  opposed  to  religion  because  they  think  that  the  re 
ligion  they  oppose  stands  for  the  essence  of  all  religion. 
They  are  under  the  delusion  at  the  present  time  that 
the  form  of  the  religion  is  its  spirit. 

It  is  no  exaggeration  to  say  that  one-half  of  the  ma 
turing  generation  of  the  East  Side  is  religious,  and  is 
gradually  finding  itself,  and  it  is  not  too  much  to  hope  that 
it  will  soon  give  expression  to  its  feelings  on  the  subject 


NEW  YOEK  153 

in  some  organized  way.     This  does  not  mean,  however,  that 
the  spirit  is  specifically  Jewish. 

Already  there  are  two  organizations  on  the  East  Side 
which  represent  the  influence  of  the  younger  generation. 
One  organization  is  known  as  the  Jewish  Endeavor  Society, 
which  is  practically  a  self-supporting  movement  of  young 
men  and  women,  directed  by  theological  students.  The  aim 
is  a  revival  of  interest  in  the  orthodox  Jewish  religion. 
The  society  has  established  Saturday  afternoon  services 
and  has  placed  on  a  respectable  basis  a  number  of  classes 
for  the  study  of  Jewish  religion,  Jewish  literature  and 
Jewish  ethical  subjects.  With  one  or  two  exceptions,  all 
the  classes  meet  down-town,  and  are  led  by  theological 
students.  Much  has  been  expected  of  this  society  and 
interested  persons  are  of  the  opinion  that  it  would  serve 
as  an  entering  wedge  for  more  religious  organizations. 

In  the  opinion  of  the  writer,  the  Jewish  Endeavor  So 
ciety  cannot  be  in  any  way  effective  as  a  focus  for  the  lat 
ent  religious  feeling  on  the  East  Side;  at  the  best,  it 
can  only  hope  to  gather  about  it  a  very  small  portion  of 
the  young  people  of  the  district. 

It  is  a  great  error  to  think  that  all  the  young  people 
of  the  East  Side  have  kept  aloof  of  religion  because  the 
ceremonies  have  proved  distasteful  or  discordant.  Such  a 
petty  reason  cannot  be  charged  against  them.  Their  oppo-  /• 
sition  to  the  Jewish  religion  is  not  based  on  mere  externals.  '*•' 
There  are  many  among  them  who  have  been  affected  by  the 
progress  of  science  and  the  spread  of  philosophical  ideas 
and  have  given  serious  consideration  to  the  fundamentals 
of  religion.  These  enlightened  minds,  while  not  as  yet 
fully  confirmed  in  a  theory  of  religion,  are  still  so  pos 
itive  as  to  what  they  do  not  believe  that  they  cannot  be 
influenced  by  a  revival  of  purified  orthodox  service. 

Any  form  of  religious  service  intended  to  be  perma 
nent,  or  as  a  focus  for  the  younger  people  of  the  East  y 
Side,  must  combine  not  only  a  reverence  for  purified 
ancient  ceremonies  and  religion,  but  a  clear  conception 
of  the  newer  definition  of  religion  which  is  taking  hold  of 
modern  men  and  women. 

Another  organization  which  does  not  lend  itself  so  well 
to  the  classification  of  a  religious  organization  is  the  down 
town  Society  for  Ethical  Culture;  however,  the  serious 
ness  of  the  movement  permits  of  its  classification  under 


154  RELIGIOUS  ACTIVITY 

this  head.  The  latest  utterances  of  Dr.  Felix  Adler  on  the 
subject  of  symbols,  ceremonies,  and  religion,  allow  for  the 
prophecy  that  this  society  will  have  much  to  do  in  a  positive 
religious  line  of  work  in  the  near  future. 

The  down-town  section  of  the  Ethical  Culture  Society 
is  in  the  hands  of  the  East  Side  young  men  and  young 
women.  It  does  its  work  in  an  educational  way  and  has 
under  its  charge  a  number  of  classes  in  the  kindergarten. 
Its  weekly  meetings  have  not  been  successful.  The  in 
fluence  of  this  organization  has  been  somewhat  checked 
by  the  method  of  its  formation.  The  purpose  was  to 
unite  the  young  people  of  the  district  on  a  common  eth 
ical  creed,  but  the  fact  that  the  society  accepted  a  sub 
sidy  to  do  its  work  when  it  should  have  raised  the  required 
money  from  its  own  membership  gives  countenance  to  the 
prejudice  that  has  arisen  in  some  minds  against  the  or 
ganization.  The  Ethical  Society  should  not  rest  entirely 
on  the  saintliness  of  its  leaders  and  should  demand  of  those 
who  affiliate  with  it  a  contribution  to  the  cause  equal  to  the 
benefit  they  receive. 

It  is  unnecessary  to  mention  the  benevolent  organiza 
tions  and  charitable  societies  organized  outside  of  the  syna 
gogue,  whose  members  are  actuated  by  true  religious  feel 
ing. 

It  seems  that  the  Jewish  religion  has  had  its  effects  on 
the  Jewish  people  in  a  way  which  gives  one  great  hope  for 
their  future.  Everywhere  they  have  settled,  whether  affil 
iated  with  a  synagogue  or  not,  their  efforts  have  been  di 
rected  to  good  work  in  getting  into  right  relations  with 
one 's  neighbors,  which  is  the  essence  of  religion. 

Ranging  on  the  fringes  of  the  community,  and  in  some 
cases  in  the  very  heart  of  it,  is  that  confused  and  defiant 
army  of  radicals,  whose  fulminations  against  religion  by 
their  very  exaggeration  lose  their  force.  The  student  of 
the  East  Side  must  not  neglect  this  army;  it  is  both  a 
menace  and  a  benefit.  It  is  a  menace  in  its  persistence 
and  the  passion  and  rancor  which  it  displays  against 
all  forms  of  religion  —  all  forms  of  enthusiasm,  and  every 
phase  of  idealism,  which  the  community  may  express.  It 
is  a  menace  because  the  violent  socialists  and  the  enthu 
siastic  anarchists  seem  to  include  in  their  condemnation 
of  religion  the  ethical  side  of  religion.  But  even  this  army 
has  its  good  in  its  stinging  of  the  self-complacent  ortho- 


NEW  YORK  155 

dox  to  defend  themselves.1  These  forces  in  their  very  na 
tures  are  doomed  to  be  ineffective,  for  they  stand  for  dis 
organization  and  anarchy.  They  represent  in  the  Jewish 
community  what  Robert  Ingersoll  represented  in  the  Chris 
tian  community :  that  is,  opposition. 

The  radicals  have  of  late  come  under  the  influence  of 
the  Jewish  national  idea,  and  as  a  result  they  are  less 
bitter  against  the  religious  element  than  before.  In  their 
newspapers  they  have  abandoned  the  advocacy  of  inter 
nationalism,  and  have  declared  themselves  Jews,  but  in  a 
national  sense.  No  amount  of  rationalizing  will  check 
the  growth  of  the  feeling  that  their  interests  are  closely 
allied  to  those  of  the  Jewish  people,  and  as  a  result  we 
may  see  a  more  friendly  spirit  toward  religion  and  a  more 
liberal  openness  to  essential  religious  influence  than  here 
tofore. 

The  elements  I  have  described  form  a  complete  inventory 
of  the  religious  activity  of  the  East  Side,  in  so  far  as 
such  an  inventory  can  be  made.2 

The  problem  before  those  who  would  influence  the  growth 
of  religion  on  the  East  Side  is  not  easy.  The  East  Side 
looms  up  before  the  imagination  of  the  American  Jew 
as  in  a  difficult  situation  because  he  has  not  been  able  to 
grapple  with  the  situation.  When  he  contemplates  the 
East  Side,  he  interprets  its  life  to  fit  his  own  conceptions 
and  views  dissimilar  conditions  without  discernment.  If 
there  is  any  improvement  he  believes  it  must  follow  the 
line  of  his  own  thinking  and  experience. 

Now,  obviously,  the  work  on  the  East  Side  cannot  be 
conducted  without  consideration  of  the  elements  which  may 
be  found  there.  There  are  orthodox  Jews  on  the  East 
Side,  there  are  atheists,  there  are  disciples  of  Emerson, 
there  are  followers  of  Kant  and  Comte,  there  are  even  the- 
osophists  and  spiritualists  in  some  number. 

1  The  Christian  missions  for  children  have  become  very  active.  They,  too, 
are  arousing  the  orthodox  Jews  of  the  district  to  the  need  of  providing  some 
religious  instruction,  based  on  modern  methods,  for  their  children.  But  the 
absence  of  precedents,  the  lack  of  a  common  understanding,  makes  the  success 
of  any  venture  decidedly  problematic.  The  so  called  "  up-town  "  element  is 
also  interested  and  may  initiate  some  institutions  which  will  counteract  the 
work  of  the  missionaries,  (whose  work  cannot  be  commended  for  its  good 
influences).  The  Lucas  classes  may  be  mentioned.  The  Emanu  El  Brother 
hood  is  also  working  on  the  same  lines. 

2 1  prefer  not  to  give  statistics  on  this  subject.  A  thorough  study  of  the 
figures  is  being  made  by  Superintendent  David  Blaustein  of  the  Educational 
Alliance,  but  there  will,  in  my  judgment,  be  little  illumination  in  the  figures, 
for  in  such  a  heterogeneous  mass  the  mere  statement  of  numbers  has  little 
significance. 


156  RELIGIOUS  ACTIVITY 

The  true  educator  is  he  who  fits  his  methods  to  his  pupils, 
and  if  the  aim  is  the  development  of  religious  feeling  he 
has  no  right  to  impose  any  phase  of  religious  belief 
on  those  to  be  instructed. 

It  is  not  with  the  children  that  the  religious  problem 
concerns  itself.  The  propagandists  can  effect  very  little 
in  the  community  by  imposing  a  form  of  religion.  The 
Jewish  religion  can  boast  of  being  creedless.  It  demands 
simply  a  true  heart,  and  to  walk  in  the  right  path. 

The  only  way  that  feeling  can  be  instilled  as  a  belief 
in  life  is  by  developing  it  according  to  the  best  methods  with 
the  material  that  is  found  among  the  people,  with  the 
germs  of  the  religious  feeling  that  are  there. 

If  there  are  orthodox  young  men  the  philanthropist  or 
educator  should  instill  orthodoxy  in  them.  If  there  are 
Emersonians  among  the  young  people  (and  no  one  will 
deny  that  the  Emerson  influence  is  religious),  it  is  their 
duty  to  lead  the  Emersonian  philosophy  into  an  organized 
form.  If  there  are  believers  in  Kant,  whose  belief  is  so 
strong  within  them  that  they  may  be  stimulated  to  or 
ganize  for  the  propagation  of  their  beliefs,  the  duty  of 
the  worker  is  to  assist  them  and  ask  them  no  questions  as  to 
the  orthodoxy  or  reform  of  their  Judaism.  If  there  are 
young  people  who  believe  that  ethics  only  are  essential,  and 
religion  secondary,  and  they  are  firm  in  their  belief,  the 
true  worker  will  use  this  as  a  basis  of  organization  among 
these  young  people  —  the  point  being  always  to  utilize  the 
germs  of  religious  feeling  in  the  formation  of  an  organi 
zation  —  there  to  allow  it  to  be  developed. 

Eeligion  is  a  great  indefinable  influence,  which  no  man 
can  mark  or  limit,  and  it  shows  itself  in  innumerable 
aspects.  In  its  essence  it  is  neither  Jewish  nor  Christian. 
It  includes  all  of  these,  and  he  who  would  stimulate  religion 
in  a  community  which  is  so  complex  as  the  Jewish  com 
munity  of  New  York  must  make  it  his  purpose  not  to  fur 
ther  partisan  views  of  religion  but  to  be  content  if  he 
further  the  growth  of  that  greater  religion  which  holds 
in  its  hands  all  minor  revelations  of  itself. 


'(B)  PHILADELPHIA 

That  Judaism  is  more  a  religion  of  deed  than  of  creed  is 
best  illustrated  in  the  present  time  by  the  life  of  the  Rus 
sian  Jew.  Religion  with  him  is  co-extensive  with  life,  it 
regulates  every  detail  of  his  daily  existence  and  is  so  inter 
woven  with  every  movement  and  action  of  his  being  that 
he  never  stops  to  question  its  authority.  Even  those  who 
by  contact  with  other  civilizations  and  with  other  forces 
have  changed  their  opinions  about  many  of  the  sources  and 
reasons  of  Jewish  observances,  are  reluctant  to  abolish  these 
observances  from  their  daily  life,  so  strong  is  communal 
opinion  and  so  ingrained  have  these  customs  become  in  the 
very  being  of  the  Jew.  The  communities  are  organized  in 
accordance  with  these  ..customs,  the  whole  social  fabric  in 
the  Pale  of  Settlement  is  dependent  upon  these  habits  and 
ceremonies,  the  dignity  and  position  of  the  members  of  the 
community  are  measured  by  their  adherence  to  these  laws 
and  ordinances.  So  that,  whereas  we  frequently  meet  with 
Jews  in  the  smallest  towns  of  the  Pale  who  entertain  the 
most  unorthodox  views,  there  are  few,  indeed,  who  would 
dare  to  indulge~in"unorthodox  observances.  The  custom 
and  habit  of  many  centuries  have  not  only  surrounded  all 
truly  religious  observances  with  halo  of  inviolable  sanctity, 
but  have  also  stamped  many  other  actions  —  accretions  from 
without  —  that  have  nothing  to  do  with  Judaism,  with  the 
religious  sanction.  For  example,  it  took  many  years  of 
heated  discussion  and  disquiet  before  the  Russian  Jew  be 
came  reconciled  to  the  idea  that  the  wearing  of  a  short 
coat  is  not  in  conflict  with  Judaism,  or  that  sitting  bare 
headed  in  one's  house  is  not  necessarily  an  indication  of 
religious  laxity.  In  fact,  there  are  hundreds  of  Jewish 
communities  even  now  in  Russia,  the  members  of  which 
are  horrified  to  see  one  of  their  brethren  dressed  in  accord 
ance  with  European  fashion.  It  is  the  reverence  for  prece 
dent  and  tradition  which  in  the  minds  of  the  Russian  Jew 
led  to  the  inclusion  of  many  such  outward  details  that 
have  apparently  no  bearing  on  religion. 

157 


' 


158  RELIGIOUS  ACTIVITY 

What  a  tremendous  shock  all  these  views  and  opinions 
receive  when  the  same  Russian  Jew  enters  this  land  of  per 
sonal  liberty  and  unrestrained  individualism.  A  complete 
strarfger  to  the  public,  the  force  of  its  opinion  dwindles  into 
insignificance  so  far  as  he  is  concerned.  Coming  in  most 
cases  with  the  intention  of  improving  his  economic  condi 
tion,  he  is  soon  confronted  with  the  awful  problem  of 
Sabbath  observance.  His  veneration  for  the  old  observ 
ances  having  been  shaken,  his  opinions  about  the  sacred- 
ness  of  the  institutions  of  society,  as  they  exist  in  the  old 
world  having  been  changed  when  he  first  viewed  the  statue 
of  liberty  and  received  the  explanation  of  its  significance, 
and  later  when  he  listened  to  the  first  stump  orator  or  read 
the  first  newspaper  that  came  his  way,  it  was  easy  to  sub 
mit  to  the  custom  of  the  land,  which  to  his  mind,  became 
identical  with  breaking  away  from  all  that  was  regarded 
as  sacred  and  inviolable  in  his  native  province.  The  power 
of  discrimination  and  acute  analysis  is  not  the  common 
property  of  the  multitude.  The  majority  of  men  are  un 
able  to  distinguish  between  the  essential  and  the  non-essen 
tial,  and  the  average  Eussian  Jew  is  no  exception  to  this 
rule.  With  one  sweep  of  the  hand  he  changed  his  notions 
about  religion  and  religious  observance,  together  with  his 
ideas  about  politics  and  government.  Many  a  young  man, 
who  was  firm  in  his  religious  convictions,  while  in  his  native 
village,  who  having  heard  of  the  religious  laxity  prevalent 
in  America,  had  fully  made  up  his  mind  not  to  be  misled 
by  the  temptation  and  allurements  of  the  free  country,  suc 
cumbed  in  his  struggle  and  renounced  his  Judaism  when 
first  submitting  his  chin  to  the  barber's  razor,1  at  the  en 
treaties  and  persuasions  of  his  Americanized  friends  and 
relatives.  Religion  then  appeared  to  him  not  only  distinct 
from  life  but  antagonistic  to  it,  and  since  it  was  life,  a  free, 
full,  undisturbed  life  that  he  sought  in  coming  here,  he  felt 
compelled  —  and  gradually  habit  and  example  made  the 
compulsion  agreeable  —  to  divorce  himself  from  all  the  re 
ligious  ties  that  had  hitherto  encompassed  him.  Thus  it  is 
that  the  immigrant  Jewish  youth,  not  only  those  who  had 
embraced  other  teachings  and  theories  before  their  arrival 
in  America,  not  only  those  who  had  cast  their  lot  with  the 
Russian  martyrs  for  liberty  in  their  native  land,  but  even 
the  simple,  unsophisticated  young  men  or  women  who  had 

1  Shaving  is  prohibited  according  to  ancient  Jewish  law.     Leviticus,  xix,  27; 
xxi,  5.     Comp.   Talmud,  Makkoth,  20o  et  seq. 


PHILADELPHIA  159 

been  faithful  and  loyal  to  the  institutions  of  old  and  who 
desired  to  conduct  their  lives  in  accordance  with  the  pre 
cepts  of  their  religion,  became  estranged  from  Judaism  and 
suffered  themselves  to  be  carried  along  by  the  tide,  with 
out  offering  any  struggle  for  the  maintenance  of  their  cher 
ished  ideals.  The  old  had  become  impracticable,  had  inter 
fered  with  their  pursuits  and  desires,  and  they  were  not 
strong  enough,  morally  or  intellectually,  to  select  the  good  '. 
and  the  essential,  and  harmonize  them  with  the  new  life 
into  which  they  had  been  forced.  Thus  it  is  that  the  immi 
grant  Jew  in  America  has  frequently  become  callous  and 
indifferent,  and  sometimes  cynical  and  antagonistic,  to 
everything  pertaining  to  Judaism. 

Although  the  great  bulk  of  early  Jewish  immigrants  to 
America  consisted  of  young  people,  it  was  not  very  long 
before  their  elders,  their  fathers  and  mothers,  were  invited 
to  settle  here.  After  one  member  of  the  family  had  ac 
cumulated  some  wealth,  and  established  himself  in  business, 
he  was  anxious  that  the  other  members  should  be  provided 
for,  and  when  two  or  three  brothers  and  sisters  had  settled 
here,  it  was  natural  that  they  should  desire  to  have  their 
parents  with  them.  It  is  comparatively  easy  for  a  young 
man,  especially  one  who  is  confronted  with  the  disagreeable 
duty  of  serving  for  four  years  in  the  army  without  any 
prospect  of  advancement,  to  renounce  all  ties  and  leave  the 
place  of  his  birth,  but  it  becomes  an  entirely  different  mat 
ter  when  older  people,  who  have  spent  most  of  their  lives 
in  one  place,  are  asked  to  sever  all  connections  and  begin 
life  over  again  under  new  conditions.  There  are  also  the 
troubles  of  the  journey,  the  passage  of  the  boundary  line, 
the  great  sea  voyage,  all  of  which  appear  insurmountable 
to  the  old,  inexperienced  villager  of  the  Pale.  Still,  the 
love  for  their  children,  and  the  desire  to  be  with  them,  in 
most  cases  enabled  the  parents  to  overcome  all  these  difficul 
ties  and  fears,  and  they  safely  arrived  in  the  "  free  coun 
try,"  were  lovingly  received  by  their  children  and  estab 
lished  in  the  new  home  provided  for  them.  The  old  mother 
immediately  assumes  the  duties  of  the  household,  and  her 
husband,  after  a  few  days  of  sight-seeing,  is  either  initiated 
into  some  easy  labor,  or  is  left  alone  to  spend  his  time  as  he 
sees  fit,  his  support  being  provided  for  by  his  children. 
Glad  as  they  are  of  the  fine  appearance  of  their  children, 
of  their  modern  ways  and  their  business  successes, 
they  cannot  suppress  a  sigh  at  beholding  their  shaved  chins, 


160  RELIGIOUS  ACTIVITY 

or  at  seeing  them  eat  their  breakfast  without  having  put 
•  on  their  phylacteries,  prayed,  washed  their  hands  and  pro 
nounced  the  blessings  before  and  after  the  meals  —  customs 
which  they  held  sacred  and  inviolable.  Their  religious  sen 
timents  are  constantly  outraged  by  the  actions  of  their 
children,  and  their  cup  of  sadness  and  disappointment  is 
filled  to  overflowing,  when,  on  the  first  Sabbath  they  behold 
their  children  depart  for  their  daily  occupations.  Who  can 
measure  the  misery  and  wretchedness  of  the  parents, 
strangers  in  a  strange  land,  at  seeing  that  which  they  re 
garded  as  dearer  than  life  violated,  voluntarily,  by  their 

x  own  children?  Many  a  father  spent  his  first  Sabbath  in 
America  in  weeping  and  lamentation,  many  a  mother  turned 
hers  into  a  day  of  mourning,  a  real  Tisha  B'ab  (the  ninth 
day  of  the  month  of  Ab,  the  anniversary  of  the  destruction 
of  Jerusalem;  the  Jewish  memorial  day  of  mourning). 
They  could  not  command  as  they  would  have  done  in  their 
old  home,  for  they  are  dependent  upon  their  children. 
They  cannot  argue,  for  their  arguments  are  met  either  with 
ridicule  or  with  explanations  of  inexorable,  unanswerable 
problems  of  economy  which  they  do  not  understand.  They 
can  only  silently  weep  at  their  misfortune  and  regret  the 
day  that  they  set  foot  in  this  ' l  tref a  medinah, ' '  this  unclean 
land.  In  course  of  time,  however,  they  become  reconciled 
to  conditions  and  though  they  themselves  still  adhere  to  the 
old  customs  and  institutions  of  their  religion,  they  regard 
as  natural  that  the  younger  generation  should  disregard 
religious  precepts  and  ceremonies.  Some  have  engaged  in 
business  themselves  and  learned  by  experience  the  many 
temptations  and  allurements  which  constantly  beset  the 
way  of  the  young  and  to  which  even  some  of  the  older  peo 
ple  succumb.  The  old  Jewess  may  still  curse  Columbus  for 
his  great  transgression  in  discovering  America,  where  her 
children  have  lost  their  religion,  the  old  father  may  still 
relieve  his  burdened  heart  on  the  high  holy  days  by  reciting 
the  confession  of  sins,  but  in  the  course  of  the  year,  they  are 
either  too  much  engrossed  in  other  affairs  or  they  become 

y  too  much  accustomed  to  religious  violations  to  utter  words 
of  censure  or  regret.  Thus  the  young  go  their  way  unmo 
lested  by  the  importunities  of  their  parents.  The  old  go 
theirs  also.  They  organize  synagogues  and  try  to  introduce 
here  all  the  provincialisms  and  crudities  to  which  they  were 
accustomed  in  the  small  villages  of  Russia  or  Galicia  whence 
they  came.  At  home,  some  of  the  young  men  or  women, 


PHILADELPHIA  161 

whose  regard  for  their  parents'  sensibilities  is  greater  than 
for  their  own  convenience,  perfunctorily  observe  the  minu-  I/ 
tise  of  religion,  whilst  others  disregard  them  even  when  in 
the  presence  of  their  elders.  Among  the  enthusiastic  Rus 
sian  Jewish  youth  there  may  also  be  found  some,  who,  en 
snared  in  the  meshes  of  nihilism  or  socialism,  as  they  under 
stand  the  terms,  consider  it  their  duty  to  make  converts  to 
their  new  faith,  and  begin  their  missionary  labors  at  home, 
thus  embittering  the  lives  of  their  parents  by  senseless  and 
vexatious  disputes.  But  these  are  in  the  minority;  most 
of  the  young  people  are  entirely  indifferent  and  callous  to  / 
their  religion ;  they  follow  the  smallest  details  of  religious  v 
observance  in  the  presence  of  their  parents  out  of  respect 
for  them  and  disregard  the  most  elemental  institutions  of 
Judaism  when  away  from  their  homes.  In  neither  case 
does  there  exist  a  genuine  sympathy  between  the  young  and 
the  old.  The  religious  activities  of  the  early  Russian  Jew 
ish  settlers  were  therefore  entirely  one-sided,  made  to  har 
monize  with  the  needs  and  the  habits  of  the  older  people. 
The  generous,  young,  Americanized  Jews  permitted  their 
parents  to  introduce  the  old  ways  into  the  new  land.  Even 
when  they  contributed  toward  the  support  of  the  syna 
gogue,  they  did  so  not  out  of  the  sense  of  supporting  an 
institution  that  was  needed,  but  to  indulge  the  old  people  / 
in  their  whims  and  follies.  They  did  not  attempt  to  gain  f/ 
control  of  these  institutions,  for  they  did  not  want  them.  ^ 
The  institutions  have  therefore  become  counterparts  of  sim 
ilar  ones  in  the  small  villages  of  Russia,  wanting,  however, 
the  features  which  make  the  latter  influences  for  good  in  the 
community.  The  congregations  are  sometimes  character 
ized  by  a  spirit  of  commercialism,  not  at  all  in  harmony 
with  the  cause  they  represent  and  lacking  the  essential  char 
acteristics  of  a  congregation  by  failing  to  unite  the  various 
elements  into  one  body  or  to  inspire  them  with  broad  relig 
ious  feeling. 

When  Russian  Jews  first  came  in  large  numbers  to  Phila 
delphia  most  of  the  Jewish  congregations  in  the  city  had 
already  introduced  reforms  in  their  services.  Religious 
scruples,  social  differences,  and  a  spirit  of  clannishness  thati^J 
is  natural  to  foreigners  caused  the  Russian  Jews  to  form 
synagogues  of  their  own.  The  only  orthodox  synagogue 
where  the  services  were  conducted  in  strict  accordance  with 
tradition  was  the  Portuguese  Synagogue  Mickve  Israel,  but 
there  the  social  distinction  was  still  greater  and  the  differ-. 


162  RELIGIOUS  ACTIVITY 

enee  in  the  pronunciation  of  the  Hebrew  and  in  the  ritual 
made  the  service  almost  unintelligible  to  the  Russian  Jewish 
immigrant.  The  German  Jewish  population  had  at  that 
time  moved  to  the  upper  sections  of  the  city,  whereas  the 
Russian  immigrants  settled  mainly  in  the  district  south 
of  Spruce  Street,  so  that  distance  combined  with  other  causes 
to  force  the  newly  arrived  immigrants  to  organize  congre 
gations  of  their  own  in  the  districts  where  they  lived.  Al 
ready  before  the  general  exodus  from  Russia  in  the  early 
eighties  there  was  a  small  Jewish  community  in  Port  Rich 
mond,  in  the  northeastern  section  of  the  city,  which  main 
tained  its  own  synagogue.  But,  as  it  appears,  the  later 
arrivals  preferred  to  remain  in  the  southern  section,  and 
in  the  course  of  but  a  few  years  a  nourishing  Jewish  com 
munity  with  synagogues  and  other  religious  institutions  was 
established  in  the  district  bounded  by  Spruce  Street  on  the 
north,  Washington  Avenue  on  the  south,  Broad  Street  on 
the  west,  and  the  Delaware  River  on  the  east.  The  two 
largest  synagogues  belonging  to  the  congregations  B'nai 
Abraham  Anshe  Russia  (organized  in  1882)  and  Kesher 
Israel  (formerly  B'nai  Jacob,  organized  in  1883),  are  situ 
ated  on  Lombard  Street,  the  first  on  the  north  side  above 
Fifth,  the  second  on  the  south  side  above  Fourth  Street. 
These,  however,  were  not  the  first  congregations  organized 
by  the  Russian  Jewish  immigrants,  nor  were  they  the  only 
ones.  In  many  cases  the  founding  of  a  congregation  pro 
ceeded  along  the  following  lines :  A  few  individuals,  usual 
ly  such  as  came  from  the  same  town  or  district,  feeling  the 
necessity  of  some  concerted  action,  banded  themselves  to 
gether  to  form  a  beneficial  society  ordinarily  bearing  the 
name  of  the  town  or  district  whence  most  of  the  members 
came.  The  aim  of  such  societies,  in  the  first  instance,  was 
to  assist  financially  any  of  the  members  who  might  be  sick, 
to  provide  burial  for  the  dead,  and  a  death  benefit  for  the 
widow  or  orphan  of  a  deceased  member.  After  the  society 
became  strengthened  in  numbers,  a  hall  was  hired  for  meet 
ing  purposes  and  was  converted  into  a  praying  room.  With 
the  approach  of  the  high  holy  days,  a  season  when  every 
Jew  feels  the  need  of  a  synagogue,  a  reader  was  engaged 
and  seats  sold  to  members  or  non-members.  This  brought  a 
considerable  revenue  to  the  society  and  after  a  few  years, 
in  many  cases,  the  organizations  saved  enough  money  to 
begin  negotiations  for  a  synagogue  building.  Jews  evinced 
no  scruples  in  regard  to  turning  a  church  into  a  Jewish 


PHILADELPHIA  163 

synagogue,  and  since  the  neighborhood  was  becoming  more 
and  more  Jewish,  the  Christians  gradually  moving  to  other 
parts  of  the  city,  a  church  building  was  easily  obtainable. 
In  fact,  most  of  the  Jewish  synagogues  in  Philadelphia 
were  formerly  Christian  churches.  The  building  was  y. 
bought  and  altered  for  purposes  of  Jewish  worship  and  the 
society  imperceptibly  turned  into  a  congregation,  retaining, 
however,  for  a  long  period,  its  beneficial  elements.  In  this 
manner  most  of  the  Russian  Jewish  synagogues  were 
formed.  The  distinction  between  a  chevra  and  a  congrega 
tion  consists  in  the  fact  that  the  former  has  no  special  build 
ing  for  religious  worship,  whereas  the  latter  has.  We 
frequently  meet  with  two  or  more  chevras  worshiping  in 
the  same  building  on  various  floors,  either  because  they 
are  unwilling  to  unite  and  buy  a  building  of  their  own  or 
because,  as  is  often  the  case,  even  when  united  they  are  un 
able  to  procure  sufficient  funds  for  a  building.  As  might 
be  expected,  these  chevras  conduct  their  services  in  many 
eases  in  an  undignified  manner,  the  officers  being  interested 
in  the  money  they  expect  to  realize  from  the  service  rather 
than  in  the  religious  and  moral  improvement  of  the  wor 
shipers. 

The  position  of  the  rabbi jn  the  Russian  J^wVh  commun 
ity  is  peculiar.  In  Russia^the  rabbi  is,  as  a  rule,  not  con 
nected  with  any  particular  congregation  but  is  regarded  as 
the  ecclesiastical  head  of  all  the  Jews.  In  larger  commun 
ities  he  is  given  one  or  more  assistants  (dayyanim — • 
judges)  who  help  him  in  the  administration  of  justice, 
which  is  still  one  of  the  functions  of  the  Russian  rabbi,  or  in 
the  decision  of  ritual  cases.  Some  congregations  may  select 
for  themselves  preachers  (maggidim)  who  interpret  legal 
or  homiletic  works  to  large  gatherings,  every  day  at  dusk, 
between  the  afternoon  and  evening  services,  and  deliver 
religious  discourses  on  Saturday  afternoons.  The  xabbi, 
however,  is  looked ^_urjon_as_the  chief  of  the  community.  He 
rarely  preaches,  he  sometimes  visits  the  constituent  syna 
gogues,  and  on  the  Sabbath  preceding  Passover  and  on  the 
penitential  Sabbath  (between  New  Year  and  the  Day  of 
Atonement)  delivers  learned  discourses  at  the  largest  syna 
gogue  in  town,  to  which  all  are  invited.  The  majority  of 
the  people  rarely  come  in  contact  with  the  rabbi ;  his  great 
ness  is  measured  not  by  his  work  among  them,  but  by  hisx 
knowledge  of  Jewish  lore  and  by  his  assiduity  in  study ;  his 
position  is  of  the  highest  dignity  and  honor. 


164  RELIGIOUS  ACTIVITY 

It  i^entirely  different  with  th^_raj}bi_in  this  country.  On 
account  oFtEeHi v erse  "element^  of  nationality  and  religious 
proclivities,  no  one  rabbi  is  satisfactory  to  all  the  members 
of  the  community.  Where  the  institution  of  chief  rabbi 
was  tried  it  invariably  failed  for  this  reason.  The  individ 
ual  congregations  were  either  unable  or  unwilling  to  engage 
>  /the  services  of  a  rabbi  and  many  of  them  even  dispensed 
'  with  a  hired  reader,  since  almost  every  Jew  is  able  and 
anxious  to  read  the  services.  The  lay  officers  conduct  all 
the  affairs  of  the  congregation,  the  spiritual  needs  of  the 
older  people  are  attended  to  by  themselves  or  by  one  of 
their  number  more  learned  than  the  rest,  reading  and  inter 
preting  portions  of  the  rabbinic  literature  in  the  room  ad 
joining  the  synagogue.  The  .children  are  taught  Hebrew 
and  religion  at  their  homes  or  at  the  established  religious 
schools.  The  young  people  of  older  growth  do  not  visit 
the  synagogue  and  do  not  care  for  religious  instruction,  so 
that  the  services  of  a  rabbi  are  regarded  by  them  as  super 
fluous.  Still,  with  the  increase  of  the  population  and  the 
more  perfect  organization  of  the  community,  the  need  of 
a  communal  leader  became  obvious  and  some  congregations 
have  elected  a  rabbi.  To  import  a  rabbi  from  Russia  and  as 
sure  him  a  respectable  livelihood  was  beyond  the  ability  of 
'any  single  body,  and  the  union  of  a  few  congregations  in  the 
election  of  a  rabbi,  although  attempted  in  a  few  instances, 
could  not  succeed  because  of  the  divers  elements  and  differ 
ent  tendencies  of  each  congregation.  So  that  those  con 
gregations  which  desired  a  rabbi  had  to  satisfy  themselves 
with  the  material  at  hand  and  select  from  their  midst  a 
learned  man,  authorized  to  decide  religious  questions,  and 
to  undertake  the  control  of  their  spiritual  affairs.  The 
salary  offered  is  usually  very  small,  but  many  perquisites 
fall  to  the  share  of  the  rabbi.  These  consist  of  wedding 
fees,  fees  for  the  supervision  of  the  ritual  slaughter  of  ani 
mals,  fees  for  the  supervision  of  the  ritual  preparation  of 
various  articles  of  food  for  the  Passover,  and  of  occasional 
presents  by  wealthy  members.  In  return  the  rabbi  is  ex 
pected  to  preach  occasionally  in  the  synagogue  and  to  an 
swer  questions  of  law  and  of  ritual.  It  will  be  noticed  from 
his  various  duties  and  privileges  here  enumerated  that  the 
lation  between  rabbi  and  congregation  is  not  close,  not 
one  of  thorough  sympathy  and  mutual  understanding.  The 
rabbi  is-  still  the  rabbi  of  the  community,  not  of  an  organ 
ized  community,  but  one  of  individuals.  Congregations 


PHILADELPHIA  165 

frequently  permit  their  rabbi  to  be  elected  by  other  con 
gregations  also,  without  there  being  any  union  of  interests, 
and,  on  the  other  hand,  many  so-called  rabbis  arise  who  are 
not  connected  with  any  congregation,  but,  being  supported 
by  a  few  individuals,  exercise  the  functions  in  a  certain 
district.  There  are  always,  however,  two  or  three,  who  by 
virtue  of  their  activity  and  tact,  succeed  in  making  them 
selves  nominally  at  least  the  heads  of  the  community,  and 
in  causing  the  people  to  respect  their  opinions  on  communal 
questions.  In  Philadelphia,  Rev.  B.  L.  Levinthal,  the  rabbi 
of  the  B'nai  Abraham  Congregation  since  1891,  and  subse 
quently  elected  by  a  few  other  congregations,  is  recognized 
as  the  chief  of  the  Russian  rabbinate,  while  Rev.  A.  H. 
Ershler,  of  the  Ahavas  Achim  Anshe  Shavil  Congregation, 
and  Rev.  Nathan  Brenner,  of  the  B'nai  Israel  Congrega 
tion  of  Port  Richmond,  are  also  recognized  authorities  in 
'Jewish  law  and  identified  with  a  number  of  communal  move 
ments.  Besides  these,  there  are  a  number  of  other  rabbis, 
some  connected  with  congregations,  others  deriving  a  liveli^ 
hood  from  occasional  fees  —  frequently  given  in  an  unbe 
coming  manner.  The  evil  of  this  system,  however,  is  being 
recognized  by  the  Russian  Jews  as  well  as  by  their  rabbis, 
and  the  Union  of  Orthodox  Rabbis,  a  national  organization 
established  a  few  years  ago,  has  made  many  attempts  to 
regulate  the  rabbinate,  but  so  far  with  very  little  success. 
There  are  three  classes  of  educational  institutions  in  a 
Jewish  community  of  Russia,  the  cheder,  the  Talmud  Torah, 
and  the  yeshibah.  The  first  is  usually  a  private  venture 
conducted  by  an  individual  who  receives  a  stipulated  sum 
per  semester  for  every  child  he  instructs.  The  instruction 
continues  for  the  whole  day  and  the  subjects  included  in 
the  curriculum  extend  over  the  entire  range  of  elementary 
Jewish  education,  from  the  Hebrew  alphabet  to  the  study 
of  the  Talmud  and  its  commentaries.  Religion  per  se,  or 
Jewish  history  is  rarely  taught  in  the  cheder,  the  pupil 
being  expected  to  derive  his  knowledge  of  these  subjects 
from  his  study  of  the  Bible  and  the  Talmud.  The  Talmud 
Torah  is  a  public  institution  maintained  by  the  commu 
nity  for  giving  instruction  free  of  charge  to  the  children 
of  the  poor.  It  is  like  the  cheder  except  that  it  is  less 
modern  in  its  methods.  The  yeshibah  is  a  higher  institu 
tion  of  learning  where  the  Talmud  and  subsequent  rabbinic 
literature  only  are  studied,  under  the  guidance  of  a  rosh 
yeshibah  (chief  of  the  academy).  This  is  usually  a  public 


t< 


166  EELIGIOUS  ACTIVITY 

institution  and  is  maintained  by  contributions  from  various 
communities  and  in  a  few  instances  from  the  whole  Jewish 
body,  and  even  Jews  outside  of  Russia.  In  the  yeshibah 
the  instruction  imparted  by  the  teacher  is  of  very  little  im 
portance.  The  greatest  stress  is  laid  on  individual  study 
and  research.  The  Russian  government,  true  to  its  policy 
of  preventing  assemblies  of  young  people,  no  matter  what 
the  object,  looks  with  suspicion  upon  these  academies,  and 
in  1892  closed  the  doors  of  the  oldest  and  most  famous,  the 
Yeshibah  of  Volosin,  the  pride  of  the  Russian  Jews. 
Still  many  of  greater  or  lesser  reputation,  depending  en 
tirely  on  the  erudition  of  their  chiefs,  still  exist  in  Russia, 
where  the  growing  youth  devote  their  years  to  the  mastery 
,of  the  intricate  literature  of  the  rabbis.  There  is  one 
•i.L  I  characteristic  feature  in  all  Jewish  educational  institutions 
~^\m  Russia, —  they  are  consciously  or  unconsciously  kept 
distinct  from  the  synagogues. 

The  American  public  school  system,  under  which  every 
child  is  expected  to  spend  the  greater  part  of  the  day  in 
secular  studies,  prevented  the  earlier  settlers  from  introduc 
ing  the  educational  methods  to  which  they  were  accustomed. 
The  problem  was  partly  solved  for  them  by  the  Hebrew 
Sunday  schools  which  had  been  in  existence  in  Philadelphia 
many  years  before  the  Russian  Jewish  exodus.  The  Hebrew 
Sunday  School  Society  and  the  Hebrew  Education  Society 
immediately  took  steps  toward  meeting  the  increasing  de 
mands  of  the  growing  community  and  established  schools 
in  the  sections  where  the  settlement  was  most  dense.  But 
^  these  schools,  though  largely  patronized  by  children  of 
Russian  Jews,  were  not  considered  sufficient  by  their  par 
ents,  either  because  Hebrew  was  not  regarded  as  of  prime 
importance  in  the  curriculum,  or  because  the  modern 
methods  employed  in  these  schools  were  looked  upon  by 
them  with  suspicion.  Hence  the  cheder  was  introduced 
here,  of  course  in  a  greatly  modified  form.  The  most  com 
mon  custom  is  to  have  the  teacher  come  to  the  pupil 's  house 
after  school  hours  every  day  and  instruct  him  in  the  rudi 
ments  of  Hebrew,  especially  that  which  is  used  in  public 
worship.  These  teachers  receive  a  very  moderate  compensa 
tion.  They  are  frequently  altogether  unacquainted  with 
pedagogic  principles.  The  more  advanced  teachers,  after 
some  struggle  and  privation,  succeeded  in  obtaining  a 
patronage  large  enough  to  warrant  their  opening  a  school 
for  the  afternoon  hours,  where  Hebrew  is  the  chief  and 


PHILADELPHIA  167 

frequently  the  only  subject  of  instruction.  That  these  pri 
vate  religious  schools  are  productive  of  so  little  good  is  due 
to  various  causes  of  which  but  a  few  will  be  mentioned  here. 
The  teacher  or  rabbi,  if  he  is  experienced  in  teaching,  which 
is  not  always  the  case,  is  usually  of  foreign  birth  and  train 
ing  and  has  very  little  sympathy  with  the  wants  and  desires 
of  the  American  child  and  no  understanding  of  his  tricks 
and  subtleties.  The  language  used  in  instruction  is  in  most 
cases  Yiddish,  a  language  that  is  foreign  to  the  pupil  even 
though  he  use  it  in  conversation  at  home.  The  rewards 
and  punishments  in  use  in  these  schools  are  obnoxious  to 
a  child  acquainted  with  the  more  refined  methods  of  the 
public  schools.  The  system  with  which  these  teachers  are 
acquainted  is  the  old  system  of  the  cheder  under  which  the 
child  was  expected  to  devote  the  whole  day  to  Jewish  sub 
jects,  and  it  is  very  difficult  for  them  to  adapt  themselves 
to  new  conditions.  If  there  is  lack  of  sympathy  and  un 
derstanding  between  the  immigrant  father  and  the  Ameri-  \/ 
can  trained  child,  there  is  open  hostility  between  the  rabbi 
of  the  cheder  and  his  pupils.  These  and  other  causes 
militate  against  the  cheder. 

The  need  of  providing  instruction  for  the  children  of  the 
poor  was  made  obvious  to  the  leaders  among  the  Russian 
Jews,  and  a  free  school  (Talmud  Torah)  was  established  in 
1890,  where  religious  instruction  is  given  free  of  charge  or 
for  a  small  fee,  to  the  children  of  the  poor.  In  course  of 
time,  when  the  Jews  began  to  move  up-town,  another  school 
was  established  there,  and  recently  a  third  has  been  organ 
ized  in  the  far  southern  section.  These  schools  are  attended 
altogether  by  about  1,000  children  and  are  supported  by  a 
regular  membership  and  by  voluntary  contributions.  Ses 
sions  are  held  every  day  of  the  week,  including  Saturdays 
and  Sundays,  and  the  method  of  instruction  differs  very 
little  from  that  pursued  in  the  cheder.  During  the  past 
year,  in  accordance  with  a  resolution  passed  by  the  Union 
of  Orthodox  Rabbis,  a  Hebrew  high  school  (later,  Yeshibah 
Mishkan  Israel)  was  organized  by  Rabbi  Levinthal,  where 
instruction  in  Talmud  and  in  the  higher  branches  of  Jewish 
lore  are  imparted  to  boys  of  advanced  age,  with  the  view 
to  preparing  them  for  the  rabbinate.  Judgment  must  be 
reserved  on  this  new  venture  until  a  later  time.  Some  con 
gregations  have  attempted  to  organize  schools  in  connection 
with  their  synagogues,  and  in  a  few  instances  this  has 
proved  highly  successful.  It  should  be  added  that  in  al- 


168  RELIGIOUS  ACTIVITY 

most  all  these  institutions  only  boys  are  admitted,  the  girls 
being  left  entirely  without  any  religious  instruction  or  re 
ceiving  it  at  home  or  in  the  Hebrew  Sunday  School  Society 's 
classes. 

A  few  attempts  have  been  made  to  organize  the  young 
people  for  religious  purposes,  but  these  have  invariably 
failed.  The  numerous  societies  of  young  people  in  the 
southern  section  of  the  city  make  little  or  no  provision  for 
religious  education,  their  endeavors  being  mainly  along 
social  and  literary  lines.  The  Hebrew  Literature  Society 
is  the  oldest  and  strongest  of  the  kind  down-town.  Its 
former  radical  tendency  is  gradually  disappearing  and  lec 
tures  on  strictly  Jewish  subjects  are  listened  to  with  atten 
tion  in  its  halls;  but  it  has  not  yet  taken  a  positive  stand 
in  religious  matters.  The  Young  Men's  Hebrew  Union's 
activities  are  social  and  broadly  educational.  There  are 
other  societies  composed  of  young  people  which  make  no 
pretence,  even  in  name,  to  any  religious  activity.  The 
Zionist  societies,  however,  though  not  aiming  directly  at 
religious  improvement,  exert  a  decidedly  good  influence  on 
their  constituencies.  Lectures  on  Jewish  subjects  are  the 
rule  in  these  organizations  and  classes  for  instruction  in 
Jewish  history  and  Hebrew  meet  with  some  success  among 
them.  Since  the  establishment  of  the  Zion  Institute  in 
1902,  a  building  especially  devoted  to  Zionistic  purposes, 
the  activity  in  these  lines  has  increased.  There  is  a  library 
and  reading  room,  where  a  majority  of  the  books  and 
periodicals  are  in  Hebrew.  Recently  a  decorous  service 
for  the  high  holy  days  was  instituted.  The  Zionist  ideal, 
which  presupposes  a  strong  national  Jewish  consciousness 
among  its  devotees,  cannot  but  be  productive  of  stronger 
religious  sentiments,  of  a  more  virile  interest  in  Israel's 
past. 

An  attempt  was  made  a  few  years  ago  to  organize  a 
reform  synagogue  down-town  for  those  to  whom  the  service 
in  the  existing  synagogues  had  become  distasteful.  Friday 
evening  services  were  held  in  a  hall,  in  accordance  with  the 
reform  mode  of  worship  and  an  English  sermon  was  deliv 
ered  by  one  of  the  up-town  reform  rabbis.  But  the  attempt 
failed  for  many  reasons,  the  most  prominent  being  the  lack 
of  interest  on  the  part  of  the  down-town  Jews.  After  a 
short  existence,  the  congregation  was  dissolved.  Another 
attempt  to  organize  the  young  people  in  a  religious  body 
was  made  under  the  name  of  the  Jewish  Endeavor  Society, 


PHILADELPHIA  169 

modeled  after  the  New  York  society  of  the  same  name. 
With  the  financial  aid  of  the  Council  of  Jewish  Women, 
this  society  arranged  for  Saturday  afternoon  services  at  one 
of  the  largest  synagogues  down-town,  with  attractive  sing 
ing  and  an  English  sermon.  The  services  were  conducted 
in  strictly  orthodox  style  but  were  made  decorous  and  at 
tractive.  This  also  failed  and  its  failure  may  be  ascribed 
to  lack  of  interest  in  religious  matters  on  the  part  of  the 
young  people.  As  the  result  of  a  suggestion  made  by  Rev. 
Dr.  Joseph  Krauskopf ,  president  of  the  Central  Conference 
of  American  Rabbis,  at  its  convention  in  St.  Louis  during 
the  summer  of  1904,  more  active  propaganda  were  made 
in  the  lower  section  of  the  city  for  the  establishment  of  a 
reform  congregation.  The  Union  of  American  Hebrew 
Congregations  sent  its  representative,  Rabbi  George  Zepin, 
to  organize  the  movement.  He  succeeded  in  interesting 
some  down-town  Jews  in  the  movement  and  an  organization 
was  effected  under  the  name  of  Congregation  Israel. 
Down-town  orthodox  rabbis  and  laymen  viewed  the  move 
ment  with  alarm,  and  a  circular  advising  parents  not  to 
permit  their  children  to  attend  the  services  was  distributed 
broadcast  in  the  down-town  districts.  During  the  high  holy 
days  the  attendance  was  quite  large.  It  remains,  however, 
to  be  seen  whether  this  movement  will  meet  with  greater 
success  than  those  that  preceded  it. 

To  obtain  a  glimpse  of  the  future  religious  status  of  the 
Russian  Jews  now  living  in  Philadelphia,  it  is  necessary 
to  consider  the  elements  making  up  that  body.  It  is  quite 
evident  that  from  the  older  immigrants  who  arrived  in  this 
country  with  settled  habits  and  ideas  very  little  can  be  ex 
pected.  They  will  continue  to  live  in  the  same  manner  as 
they  were  accustomed  to  and  observe  the  ceremonies  that 
have  become  part  of  their  lives.  Such  as  have  become 
estranged  from  religion  are  too  few  and  their  influence  too 
insignificant  to  demand  particular  attention.  The  hope  of 
Judaism  in  America  rests  with  the  young  people  and  es 
pecially  with  those  of  the  Russian  immigrant  class,  both 
because  of  their  numbers  and  increasing  influence  and  of 
their  superior  intellectual  attainments.  It  is  these  young 
people  that  demand  our  especial  consideration  if  we  venture 
a  forecast  of  the  future  of  Judaism  in  this  or  any  other 
part  of  the  land. 

Broadly  speaking,  we  may  divide  the  young  people  of 
down-town  Jewry  into  three  classes.  Such  a  division  is  not 


170  RELIGIOUS  ACTIVITY 

comprehensive,  but  it  will  be  sufficient  to  give  an  insight 
into  present  conditions  and  will  permit  of  conjecture  as  to 
the  future. 

First.  The  young  people  that  hail  from  the  lower  classes 
of  Russian  Jewish  society  who  have  never  had  the  advan 
tages  of  culture  or  education  of  any  kind.  These,  on 
arriving,  constitute  in  America  the  great  army  of  sweat 
shop  workers  and  soon  become  the  playthings  of  every  un 
scrupulous  demagogue.  Oppressed  by  their  employers, 
who,  in  most  cases,  belong  to  the  same  social  class,  they 
rebel,  and  in  their  ignorance  confuse  economic  and  relig 
ious  problems  and  misinterpret  the  new  theories  of  social 
economy  presented  to  them  by  the  labor  leaders.  They  be 
come  not  only  indifferent  to  religion  but  also  actuated  by  a 
hatred  toward  everything  that  has  a  religious  flavor. 
Their  leaders  are  mostly  disappointed  Russian  students, 
banished  political  offenders,  or  such  other  persons  as  have 
become  embittered  by  the  state  of  affairs  in  Russia  and  who 
carry  their  dissatisfaction  with  the  political  status  in  that 
land  into  the  realms  of  economy  and  religion.  They  find 
ready  listeners  in  the  group  of  wretched,  overworked,  and 
underfed  laborers,  who  are  glad  to  find  sympathy  among  the 
learned  and  who  become  willing  disciples  of  all  their  the 
ories. 

Second.  The  young  people  who  come  from  the  middle 
classes  of  Russian  Jewish  society,  who  have  had  opportun 
ities  for  some  refinement  at  home  and  some  education  at  the 
cheder  and  other  institutions  of  Jewish  learning  and  have 
acquired  some  modern  education  through  private  instruc 
tion.  These,  on  coming  to  America,  either  become  petty 
tradesmen,  store-keepers,  or,  if  they  are  successful  in  ob 
taining  some  support  at  the  beginning,  enter  a  professional 
school  and  are  graduated  as  lawyers  or  physicians,  the  two 
favorite  professions  among  Russian  Jews  in  America.  The 
peddlers  who  sell  on  the  installment  plan,  or  the  shopkeep 
ers,  though  many  of  them  possess  a  good  knowledge  of  Juda 
ism  and  of  Jewish  history,  and  are  especially  attracted  by 
the  Zionist  movement,  having  been  compelled  at  first  to 
abandon  many  religious  customs  and  institutions,  become 
careless  about  religion  and  indifferent  to  its  behests.  The 
professional  men  also  forsake  religious  practices  either  be 
cause  they  have  become  convinced  atheists  or  agnostics  or 
because  it  pays  them  better  to  stand  aloof  from  the  syna 
gogue.  It  is  an  old  paradox  that  Jews  have  greater  respect 


PHILADELPHIA  171 

for  him  who  stands  at  a  distance  from  them  in  religious 
matters  than  for  one  who  takes  a  most  active  part  in  the 
synagogue. 

Third.  The  young  people  who  were  born  in  this  country 
or  were  brought  here  in  childhood  and  have  had  the  ad 
vantages  of  a  public  school  training.  These  should  be  the 
chief  concern  of  the  communal  worker,  for  on  them  the 
future  of  Judaism  mainly  depends.  Their  religious  edu 
cation  is  defective  and  their  religious  observances,  if  they 
do  observe  anything  in  deference  to  their  parents,  lacks 
spirit  and  interest.  Most  of  them  are  not  antagonistic  to 
religion,  but  are  indifferent  to  it,  and  wholesome  influences  J 
may  have  a  salutary  effect  upon  their  religious  attitude. 
They  are  unsympathetic  with  the  existing  synagogues  be 
cause  the  synagogue  offers  them  very  little,  it  being  entirely 
managed  and  directed  by  the  older  people,  who  do  not  and 
cannot  understand  them.  They  are  indifferent  to  Jewish  /< 

practice  because  it  has  never  been  presented  to  them  in  a 
light  that  would  appeal  to  their  more  modern  and  more  - 
cultured  tastes.     If  synagogues  were  established  exclusively  ^        ,  S^ 
for  these   young  people   and  their  management  directed   , 
toward  the  needs  of  this  rising  generation,  they  could  yet 
be  won  over  to  a  staunch  Judaism.     The  time  is  probably 
as  yet  unripe  for  such  work,  but  it  is  not  very  far  distant. 
Modern  synagogues,   presided  over  by  trained  American 
rabbis,  will  eventually  be  introduced  in  the  Russian  Jewish 
sections  of  our  large  cities,  and  a  more  perfect  and  homo 
geneous  religious  body  will  be  formed  in  American  Israel. 


(0)  CHICAGO 

We  find  upon  investigation  that  the  Russian  Jewish 
people  have  accomplished  more  than  they  are  generally 
credited  with,  and  that  as  soon  as  opportunity  is  open  to 
them  they  make  good  use  of  it  and  stand  at  least  on  a  par 
with  their  brethren  of  other  nationalities. 

They  do  not  wish  to  be  patronized,  they  desire  to  be 
understood,  and  not  being  understood  by  their  German 
Jewish  brethren,  who  often  look  down  4ipon  themp  they 
choose  to  dwell  among  their  own  kind  and  to  live  according 
to  their  traditional  customs.  They  are  generally  industri 
ous  and  thrifty,  and  their  first  interest,  after  providing  for 
their  families,  is  in  the  synagogue  and  the  religious  school. 

They  are  often  charged  with  being  dirty,  sometimes 
filthy ;  but  if  we  reflect  that  after  arriving  on  these  shores 
their  first  residence  is  generally  in  a  neglected  section  of 
the  city,  and  the  first  object  lessons  they  receive  consist  of 
dirty  streets  and  alleys  and  broken  down  tenements  with 
out  sanitary  accommodations,  we  shall  be  less  ready  to  find 
fault.  Put  these  immigrants  into  model  houses  where  bath 
rooms,  pure  air,  and  sunshine  are  not  unknown,  where  the 
members  of  the  family  can  have  sleeping  rooms  apart  from 
the  common  living  rooms,  so  that  privacy  is  not  infringed 
upon,  and  then  if  they  do  not  come  up  to  your  expectations, 
blame  them  if  you  will;  but  not  while  they  are  in  such 
dirty,  restricted  and  ill-kept  quarters.  Blame,  first,  the 
city  administration  that  allows  such  disgraceful  conditions 
to  exist;  second,  the  niggardly  householder  who  will  not 
keep  his  premises  in  decent  condition,  but  extorts  from  the 
poor  exorbitant  rental;  and  last,  the  weary  mother  of 
numerous  children,  whose  two  hands  must  keep  house  and 
children  clean  and  perform  the  many  duties  that  devolve 
upon  her.  Surely,  the  maxim  of  one  of  our  sages,  * '  Judge 
not  thy  fellow  man  until  thou  hast  been  put  in  his  place, ' ' 
should  be  borne  in  mind  when  such  charges  are  made. 

Surrounded  by  so  many  unfavorable  conditions,  many 
Russian  Jews  notwithstanding  consider  it  imperative  to  be- 

172 


CHICAGO  173 

long  to  a  congregation  and  to  provide  religious  instruction 
for  their  children.  They  know  that  the  public  school  will 
attend  to  their  secular  education,  so  out  of  their  scant 
earnings  they  pay  synagogue  and  Talmud  Torah  (relig 
ious  school)  dues.  The  synagogue  plays  a  very  important 
part  in  the  daily  life  of  the  orthodox  Russian  Jew,  for  his 
life  and  religion  are  so  closely  interwoven  that  public  divine 
worship  is  to  him  a  duty  and  a  pleasure.  The  synagogue 
is  the  religious  and  social  centre  around  which  the  activity 
of  the  community  revolves  and  has  now  become,  since  the 
formation  of  auxiliary  loan  societies,  a  distributing  agency 
for  its  various  philanthropies,  where  "  personal  service  n 
is  not  a  fad,  but  has  always  been  recognized  in  dealing 
with  the  unfortunate.  Small  wonder  is  it  that  the  ortho 
dox  Russian  Jew  clings  to  his  synagogue.  It  is  open  not 
only  ' '  from  early  morn  till  dewy  eve, ' '  but  far  into  the 
night,  and  in  some  cases  the  doors  are  never  closed.  Daily 
worship  begins  early,  so  that  the  laboring  man  can  attend 
service  and  yet  be  in  time  for  his  work.  There  are  morn 
ing,  afternoon,  and  evening  services  —  seldom  attended  by 
women.  Often  the  peddler 's  cart  can  be  seen  standing  near 
the  entrance  while  the  owner  is  at  prayer  within.  On 
Sabbaths  and  holy  days  services  are  always  well  attended  by 
men  and  women,  the  latter  occupying  a  gallery  set  apart 
for  their  use. 

Expense  is  not  spared  in  making  the  exercises  interest 
ing  to  the  older  people,  but  little  is  done  to  attract  the 
younger  generation.  The  beautiful  Hebrew  language, 
which  they  do  not  understand,  is  used  exclusively  in  the 
service.  And  when  there  is  a  sermon  it  is  in  Yiddish,  and 
rather  tedious  and  uninteresting  for  the  young  people,  who 
are  almost  starving  for  that  religious  food  which  would 
satisfy  the  heart  and  mind. 

Connected  with  the  synagogue  is  the  beth  hamedrash,  or 
house  of  learning,  where  students  of  religious  literature 
are  always  welcome,  and  Bible  and  Talmud  are  studied  and 
discussed.  Many  take  advantage  of  the  opportunity  thus 
afforded,  and  form  study  circles  or  meet  for  devotional 
reading.  There  is  much  to  attract  and  hold  the  older  gen 
eration,  who  are  continually  receiving  accessions  from 
abroad  and  in  their  lives  the  synagogue  means  much,  if 
not  all  worth  striving  for. 

The  beginning  of  a  congregation  is  generally  a  minyan 
or  gathering  of  at  least  ten  men  for  divine  worship.  This 


174  RELIGIOUS  ACTIVITY 

is  held  in  rented  quarters.  As  soon  as  a  sufficient  number 
of  members  are  gained  they  resolve  to  form  an  organiza 
tion,  and  when  funds  are  forthcoming  a  house  of  worship 
is  bought  or  built. 

TheuOhave  Sholom  Mariampol,  the  oldest  congregation, 
began  in  this  way  in  1872.  Its  property  was  destroyed 
by  fire  in  1874,  after  which  a  hall  was  again  rented.  Its 
membership  increased  rapidly,  smaller  congregations 
joined  it,  and  its  present  structure  was  erected  in  1888 
at  a  cost  of  $6,250.  Nearly  all  the  charitable  organiza 
tions  of  the  West  Side  can  trace  their  origin  to  this 
congregation,  whose  membership  is  now  one  hundred  and 
fifty.  In  1890  certain  members  became  displeased  and 
seceded,  forming  the  Mishne  U'gemoro  Congregation, 
excluding  from  membership  all  who  were  not  strict  ad 
herents  of  traditional  law.  They  now  have  55  members 
and  own  their  building. 

The  largest  congregation  is  the  Anshe  Kenesseth  Israel, 
which  was  organized  originally  as  Anshe  Eussia  in  1875. 
In  1887  it  united  with  Kenesseth  Israel  and  later  Anshe 
Suwalk  joined.  It  now  numbers  200  members,  possesses 
a  building  valued  at  $35,000,  twenty  Sepher  Torahs  (Scrolls 
of  the  Law),  and  a  large  library  for  religious  study  circles. 

The  synagogues  not  only  serve  religious  needs  but  do 
a  large  amount  of  philanthropic  work.  There  are  about 
twenty-five  on  the  West  Side,  representing  an  investment 
of  approximately  $90,000,  and  a  membership  of  more 
than  2,000.  These  congregations  are  self-supporting, 
members  contributing  annual  dues,  ranging  from  $6  to 
$12.  Permanent  or  life  seats  are  from  $100  to  $150  each. 
Yearly  rentals  are  from  50  cents  to  $5,  entitling  the 
holder  to  a  seat  for  himself  and  one  in  the  gallery  for  his 
wife  or  other  female  relative.  In  addition  to  synagogue 
dues  there  are  dues  for  the  Talmud  Torah  (Hebrew  Free 
School)  ;  the  Hachnosis  Orchim  (Shelter  for  Strangers)  ; 
the  Beth  Moshav  Zkeinim  (Home  for  the  Aged)  ;  the 
Lechem  L'rovim  (Bread  for  the  Hungry)  ;  the  Gomley 
Chesed  Shel  Emeth  (Association  for  the  Free  Burial  of 
the  Poor)  ;  the  free  loan  associations  which  loan  money 
to  those  in  need  and  charge  no  interest;  the  yeshibahs  or 
strictly  orthodox  advanced  schools  of  Jewish  learning  in 
this  city  and  in  Eussia;  the  Palestine  chaluka  or  charity 
for  indigent  Jews  of  the  Holy  Land.  Before  Pesach,  or 
Passover,  a  fund  is  raised  to  supply  the  poor  with  matzoth 


CHICAGO  175 

(Passover  cakes)  and  other  necessaries,  and  when  winter 
sets  in  coal  is  given  to  poor  familes.  The  Mariampol  Con 
gregation  now  gives  sick  benefits  and  endowments  to 
members,  but  how  this  plan  will  work  as  time  goes  on  re 
mains  to  be  seen. 

The  few  well-to-do  men  of  a  congregation  often  distribute 
many  tons  of  coal  among  the  struggling  poor,  and  with 
the  gift  is  generally  given  the  friendship  of  the  giver. 
The  poor  man  is  not  regarded  as  a  beggar ;  he  is  encour-  (/ 
aged  to  tell  his  troubles  and  difficulties  and  receives  in 
return  friendly  advice  and  assistance.  The  free  loan 
associations  have  proven  a  great  success  and  deserve 
special  mention  because  the  recipients  of  aid  show  a  de 
sire  not  to  accept  charity  except  when  dire  necessity 
compels. 

The  dues  for  all  the  auxiliary  societies  are  collected  by 
paid  agents  who  receive  about  six  or  seven  dollars  per 
week.  They  are  furnished  with  perforated  stamp  books, 
in  which  each  stamp  is  a  receipt  for  five  or  ten  cents.  They 
give  these  when  they  make  the  weekly  collections.  This 
way  of  paying  dues  is  found  the  most  convenient  for  the 
people  of  small  income. 

We  should  not  be  surprised  that  the  Russian  Jews  have 
not  established  large  institutions  with  their  own  means, 
as  the  capital  to  be  drawn  upon  is  limited.  It  is  estimated 
that  out  of  an  income  of  seven  or  eight  dollars  per  week 
an  average  man  gives  twelve  dollars  per  year  for  religious 
or  charitable  purposes,  that  is,  three  per  cent,  of  his  gross 
income. 

The  use  of  the  synagogues  is  given  freely  for  meetings, 
religious,  charitable,  or  educational.  It  shows  a  broad 
sentiment,  when,  as  was  the  case  one  winter,  women  were 
allowed  to  speak  from  the  pulpits  of  orthodox  synagogues 
and  make  appeals  for  the  Beth  Moshab  Zkeinim  Bazaar, 
which  was  given  for  the  purpose  of  erecting  a  home  for 
aged  Jews,  to  be  conducted  according  to  orthodox  custom. 
The  religious  sentiment  underlying  this  movement  was 
strong;  it  served  to  enlist  orthodox  Jews  all  over  the  city, 
with  the  result  that  in  less  than  a  year's  time  the  B.  M.  Z. 
Association  had  bought  a  lot  of  ground  in  a  good  loca 
tion.  The  bazaar  was  then  undertaken  by  a  band  of  noble 
men  and  women  and  the  gross  receipts  amounted  to  over 
$13,000,  the  expenditures  about  $2,000.  This  large 
amount  came  chiefly  from  the  pockets  of  the  middle  class 


176  RELIGIOUS  ACTIVITY 

and  the  poor,  for  the  wealthy  German  co-religionists,  with 
a  few  noteworthy  exceptions,  held  aloof.  A  Jewish  phil 
anthropist  encouraged  the  movement  by  a  donation  of 
$20,000,  on  condition  that  a  building  valued  at  $40,000  be 
erected.  On  May  3,  1903,  the  Home,  costing  in  all  about 
$85,000,  received  its  first  inmates  and  it  has  been  success 
ful  in  upholding  religious  regulations.  A  second  bazaar 
for  the  purpose  of  paying  off  a  mortgage  of  $20,000  was 
recently  given  and  the  amount  realized  was  sufficient,  leav 
ing  the  building  free  of  debt. 

One  excellent  result  of  this  movement  was  the  bringing 
out  of  the  younger  people  interested  in  orthodox  Judaism 
and  the  evidence  it  gave  them  of  the  effective  power  of 
organization.  Would  that  these  young  men  and  women, 
reared  in  this  blessed  land  of  liberty,  with  enthusiasm 
unbounded,  with  spiritual  yearnings  unsatisfied,  could 
find  adequate  provision  made  for  them  in  the  synagogue. 
But  there  is  none  and  they  remain  away.  The  only  op 
portunity  they  have  of  hearing  an  English  sermon  or 
prayer  is  in  the  reform  or  conservative  temples,  where 
changes  in  the  service  have  been  made,  of  which  they  can 
not  approve,  but  which  they  are  gradually  led  to  condone. 
The  strong  attachment  they  feel  for  the  traditions  of 
their  fathers  could  yet  be  maintained  and  developed  and 
directed  into  desirable  channels  if  the  eyes  of  their  elders 
could  be  opened  and  they  would  insist  on  having  a  mod 
ern  orthodox  English  preacher  in  the  synagogue  and  some 
portion  of  the  service  in  English. 

The  young  people  are  gradually  drifting  away  from  re 
ligious  influences.  They  cannot  and  will  not  adapt  them 
selves  to  the  old  methods  that  do  not  appeal  to  their  spir 
itual  instincts,  and  their  elders  cannot  be  made  to  realize 
the  necessity  of  the  compromise,  but  go  blindly  their  own 
way.  The  result  is  that  their  sons  and  daughters  are  be- 
-  coming  ethical  culturists,  free  thinkers,  agnostics  and 
atheists.  From  a  strict  and  to  them  unintelligent  ortho 
doxy  these  have  gone  to  the  other  extreme,  because  they 
were  not  properly  instructed  in  the  principles  of  their  re 
ligion,  which  are  exemplified  by  its  ceremonies.  The 
Sabbath  is  desecrated,  and  indifference  in  religious  mat 
ters  reigns.  A  modern  orthodox  English  preacher  imbued 
with  the  old  Jewish  spirit  could  influence  the  younger 
generation.  A  young  people's  synagogue  should  be  estab 
lished  on  the  West  Side  with  attractive  services  and  a 


CHICAGO  177 

sermon  on  Sabbath  afternoons  and  at  any  other  time  that 
might  be  deemed  advisable.  The  older  people  do  not  will 
ingly  break  their  Sabbaths  and  would  be  only  too  glad  to  see 
that  their  children  did  not,  but  it  seems  they  cannot  take 
the  initiative  in  providing  a  religious  stimulus  for  the 
young  people  in  accordance  with  modern  methods.  That 
must  come  from  those  who  understand  the  necessity 
for  immediate  action.  There  are  some  who  realize  this 
necessity  but  the  opposition  to  any  innovation  is  still 
great  and  we  can  but  hope  that  time  and  intelligence  will 
solve  the  serious  problem.  In .  the  meantime,  the  young 
people  find  satisfaction  in  forming  Zionist  societies  and 
literary,  social  and  educational  organizations,  which  fur 
nish  them  an  outlet  for  their  surplus  energies.  Foremost 
among  these  are  the  Hebrew  Literary  Association  (or 
ganized  in  1885),  the  Self  Educational  Club  (organized 
in  1894),  and  the  Gates  of  the  Order  Knights  of  Zion. 

What  is, being  done  for  the  religious  needs  of  the  chil 
dren  of  the  district?  For  the  boys  much,  for  the  girls 
comparatively  little.  The  Moses  Montefiore  Hebrew  Free 
School,  which  is  the  principal  religious  school  on  the  West- 
Side,  has  an  attendance  of  800  boys,  ranging  from  four  to 
thirteen  years  of  age.  This  is  inadequate  for  the  popula 
tion  and  the  management  has  built  a  branch  school  which 
accommodates  about  600  boys.  Chedarim  or  private 
classes,  are  to  be  found  in  many  blocks  of  the  crowded 
district.  The  hours  and  subjects  taught  are  the  same  as 
at  the  Talmud  Torah,  but  in  some  instances  more  modern 
methods  are  employed.  Many  of  the  classes  are  held 
amid  unhealthy  surroundings  in  basements  and  living 
rooms.  They  usually  number  from  twenty  to  forty 
pupils.  About  1,200  boys  receive  instruction  in  these 
classes.  The  children  attend  until  they  become  bar  mitz- 
vah  (formally  admitted  to  the  faith  at  the  age  of  thir 
teen)  or  go  to  high  school,  when,  if  the  parents  can 
afford,  private  teachers  are  employed.  Probably  600 
children  take  private  lessons,  paying  from  $2  to  $5  per 
month.  The  hours  for  those  who  attend  the  Talmud 
Torah  are  from  9  A.  M.  to  3  :30  P.  M.  for  children  not  at 
tending  public  school,  and  for  older  children  from  4  P. 
M.  to  7:30  P.  M.  The  subjects  taught  are  the  Hebrew 
alphabet,  reading,  grammar,  translation  of  the  Penta 
teuch,  Prophets,  Hagiographa,  into  Yiddish,  and  portions 
of  the  Mishna  and  Gemara.  Sixteen  teachers  and  two 


178  RELIGIOUS  ACTIVITY 

janitors  are  employed.  Books  are  furnished  to  pupils 
gratis  when  they  are  unable  to  pay  for  them. 

During  a  visit  to  the  Hebrew  Free  School,  I  found  it  a 
rare  treat  to  hear  boys  of  six  years  of  age  and  upwards 
translate  into  Yiddish  the  Hebrew  of  the  Pentateuch  and 
the  Prophets  and  then  repeat  in  English  the  substance  of 
what  they  had  been  learning.  I  was  surprised  to  note 
that  many  ethical  lessons  had  been  imparted  by  the 
teacher  during  the  course  of  his  instruction.  We  are  apt 
to  condemn  the  methods  of  these  teachers  because  they 
are  not  up-to-date.  I  doubt,  however,  if  all  our  boasted 
progress  in  educational  work  can  produce  as  successful 
results.  Little  boys  translating  and  explaining  from  the 
original  the  stories  of  Noah,  of  Joseph,  of  the  Tribe  of 
Benjamin,  or  a  chapter  from  Isaiah,  with  the  ethical  les 
sons  to  be  derived  therefrom,  and  receiving  from  the 
teacher  such  commentary  as  no  English  translation  con 
tains.  And  no  breath  of  higher  criticism,  so-called,  inter 
feres  with  the  implicit  belief  in  the  occurrence  of  the 
events  described,  but  a  deep  sense  of  the  omnipotence  and 
mercy  of  God  and  an  unquestioning  faith  in  divine  provi 
dence  are  inculcated. 

I  almost  forgave  the  uncleanly  condition  of  the  build 
ing,  the  lack  of  ventilation  of  the  rooms,  although  there 
were  many  windows  through  which  fresh  air  could  have 
entered;  the  loud  tone  of  the  recitations;  the  pounding  on 
the  desk  for  order,  and  the  untidy  appearance  of  some  of 
the  boys, —  when  I  saw  before  me  so  many  bright  faces 
full  of  energy  and  intelligence,  and  above  all,  faith.  Why 
need  we  feel  discouraged  as  to  the  future  of  Judaism  in 
this  country  when  we  see  a  rising  generation  trained  in 
Jewish  lore,  and  in  the  secular  knowledge  which  the  pub 
lic  school  offers,  that  will  mold  its  destinies?  For  these 
children  of  Russian  and  Polish  Jewish  parentage  have 
within  them  all  the  elements  that  will  give  them  power 
when  they  grow  to  manhood.  The  ambition,  perseverance 
and  scholarship  which  is  their  inheritance  and  which  will 
find  an  outlet  under  the  free  institutions  of  this  great 
country,  if  properly  directed  by  men  and  women  of  cul 
ture  and  piety,  will  serve  to  hasten  the  end  of  what  Zang- 
will  terms  a  "  transitional  "  period  in  Judaism. 

But  to  direct  them  aright?  Have  they  the  men  and 
the  women  to  do  it?  Some  who  could  be  leaders  have  de 
serted  their  people,  have  moved  to  fashionable  quarters, 


CHICAGO  179 

and  to  their  shame,  be  it  said,  pay  no  heed  to  the  needs 
of  the  district  from  which  they  hailed,  and  rather  wish  to 
sever  their  connection  with  those  they  left  behind.  Others 
have  the  ability  and  the  will,  but  cannot  spare  the  time. 
Let  us  hope  that  the  period  is  not  far  distant  when  from 
their  own  ranks  will  arise  teachers  and  leaders,  imbued 
with  the  modern  spirit  and  the  old  scholarship  and  rever 
ence  for  the  law  and  its  traditions,  who  will  instill  into  the 
minds  of  the  children  such  respect  for  the  historical  cere 
monies  of  Judaism,  by  dwelling  upon  the  great  ethical 
principles  that  underlie  them,  that  they  will  not  fail  to 
observe  them,  for  only  by  the  intelligent  practice  of  these 
ceremonies  can  Judaism  be  preserved  and  fulfil  its 
mission. 

The  ethical  value  of  religious  observance  is  great, 
though  not  so  generally  recognized  because  the  mechanical 
performance  of  a  precept  —  although  it  in  itself  carries 
an  ethical  lesson  with  it  —  has  been  impressed  upon  the 
child's  mind  to  the  exclusion  of  its  spiritual  meaning. 
However  it  may  be  in  Europe,  in  this  country  a  boy  or 
girl  instinctively  seeks  a  reason  for  everything.  When 
he  is  not  taught  the  reason  for  religious  observances,  they 
lose  their  value  in  his  eyes,  and  he  often  disregards  them 
as  unworthy  of  the  enlightenment  of  the  present  day. 
Where,  as  is  so  often  the  case,  home  training  is  insuffi 
cient,  the  religious  school  should  step  in  and  supply  the 
deficiencies.  Not  only  should  the  meaning  of  the  laws 
and  ceremonies  be  taught  to  young  and  old,  but  also  the 
difference  between  an  obligatory  and  an  optional  precept 
(din  and  minhag).  The  neglect  of  this  branch  of  instruc 
tion  brings  about  serious  dangers.  The  local  rabbis  in 
their  Yiddish  derashas  (sermons)  are  content  to  expound 
this  or  that  passage  of  Holy  Writ,  ignoring  entirely  pres 
ent  conditions  and  dangers;  an  English  speaking  rabbi 
who  could  influence  the  young  is  unknown  in  the  district. 
Even  the  sanctity  of  the  Sabbath  is  being  violated  to  a 
much  greater  extent  than  would  be  the  case  were  some 
powerful  voice  raised  against  it.  While  the  majority  of 
the  older  people  are  strict  in  their  observance  of  it, 
especially  in  the  home,  where  it  is  greeted  by  even  the 
poorest  with  a  little  special  preparation,  many  of  the 
young  men  and  women  are  compelled  by  economic  condi 
tions  to  work  on  the  Sabbath.  Are  these  to  be  censured 
as  much  as  the  Russian  Jews  who  own  large  mercantile 


180  RELIGIOUS  ACTIVITY 

establishments  in  the  heart  of  the  Jewish  district,  who  are 
far  beyond  want,  whose  employees  are  Jewish,  whose 
customers  are  Jewish,  and  who  keep  their  places  of  busi 
ness  open  on  the  Sabbath  and  on  Sunday  as  well?  Many 
realize  the  insidious  danger  of  such  flagrant  violations  of 
the  Sabbath,  but  as  yet  only  a  feeble  effort  has  been  made 
to  check  them.  If  the  rich,  who  are  the  employers  of  the 
poor,  could  be  influenced,  some  effective  work  might  be 
accomplished. 

The  fact  that  there  is  no  provision  made  for  religious  in 
struction  of  the  girls,  except  through  their  home  training, 
led  the  Chicago  Section  of  the  Council  of  Jewish  Women 
to  open  a  Sabbath  school  for  them.  It  was  successful  from 
the  start.  Three  hundred  girls  took  advantage  of  the  op 
portunity  afforded;  many  more  were  turned  away  for 
lack  of  accommodation.  Sinai  Congregation  contributed 
the  greater  part  of  the  funds  and  finally  took  the  school 
under  its  supervision.  The  sessions  are  held  weekly  on 
Sabbath  afternoons  from  2  to  4  o'clock  in  the  Jewish  Man 
ual  Training  School.  There  are  now  over  400  pupils  in 
attendance. 

A  few  of  the  residents  who  understand  the  needs  of  the 
district  have  started  a  religious  school  where  200  boys  and 
girls  receive  instruction  in  Hebrew,  Jewish  history  and  re 
ligion;  but  the  school  is  yet  in  its  infancy  and  struggling 
for  existence  owing  to  lack  of  financial  backing.  Sessions 
are  held  twice  a  week. 

Another  hopeful  sign  of  an  awakening  to  the  needs  of 
the  present  day  was  the  opening  of  a  religious  school  by 
the  Chicago  Zion  Gate,  Order  Knights  of  Zion.  About 
150  boys  and  girls  attend  this  school,  which  holds  its  ses 
sions  on  Sabbaths  and  Sundays.  Fifty  of  the  older  boys 
have  organized  a  club  called  Sons  of  American  Zionists, 
and  have  bought  out  of  their  own  treasury  a  small  library 
of  Jewish  books  in  the  English  language.  English  is  used 
by  the  teachers  and  modern  methods  prevail  in  the  school. 
Hebrew  songs  are  included  in  the  course  of  instruction. 
There  should  be  many  such  schools  not  only  for  weekly 
but  for  daily  sessions,  and  where  girls  as  well  as  boys  are 
welcome.  But  help  must  come  from  outside  the  district, 
for  the  drain  upon  the  income  of  the  residents  is  already 
too  great. 

The  Zionist  movement  is  also  one  of  the  causes  which 
has  led  to  a  religious  awakening,  and  has  resolved  itself 


CHICAGO  181 

largely  into  an  educational  revival,  chiefly  on  matters  of 
Jewish  interest.  Although  the  older  people  have  not  to 
a  great  extent  joined  the  movement,  their  sympathies 
have  been  enlisted;  the  young  people,  however,  grasped 
its  great  significance,  and  many  who  had  drifted  away 
from  Judaism  have  been  won  back,  have  begun  to  take  an 
interest  in  Jewish  subjects,  and  to  study  the  Jewish  situa 
tion.  The  Zion  societies  study  Jewish  history  and  litera 
ture  and  the  Hebrew  language,  and  do  literary  and  social 
work.  After  the  second  Basle  Congress  the  success  and 
stability  of  fraternal  orders  in  America  being  noted,  the 
order  Knights  of  Zion  was  organized,  and  has  proven  suc 
cessful.  It  consists  of  a  number  of  Gates.  The  Chicago 
Zion  Gate,  besides  holding  study  meetings  for  its  own 
members,  opened  the  religious  school  referred  to.  The 
Kadimoh  Gate,  composed  of  young  men,  conducts  a  read 
ing  room  and  gives  courses  of  Friday  evening  lectures  on 
Jewish  topics.  The  Clara  De  Hirsch  Gate  has  a  Bible 
class  and  furnishes  a  teacher  for  the  religious  school.  In 
fact,  wherever  a  Zion  organization  is  formed  some  kind 
of  religious  study  is  introduced,  and  the  seeds  sown  will 
undoubtedly  bear  fruit  in  the  future,  for  the  Jewish  con 
sciousness  has  been  aroused.  These  Zionist  societies  and 
other  fraternal  orders,  in  conjunction  with  the  Hebrew 
Literary  Association,  the  Self  Educational  Club,  the 
Beaconsfield  and  sundry  social  clubs,  together  with  the  co 
operation  of  the  rabbis  of  the  city,  and  the  Council  of 
Jewish  Women,  could  by  united  action  maintain  a  young 
people's  synagogue  and  daily  religious  schools  free  from 
the  objections  urged  against  the  chedarim.  The  younger 
generation  would  attend  in  large  numbers  and  the  chil 
dren  would  be  kept  from  the  evil  influences  of  the  street 
and  the  alley. 

The  Rabbinical  Association  has  made  the  experiment  of 
holding  Friday  evening  services  in  the  Jewish  Manual 
Training  School,  and  reports  sufficient  .encouragement  to 
warrant  continuance. 

The  young  people  are  aroused  to  the  importance  of  ac 
tion.  This  is  evidenced  by  their  interest  in  a  movement 
which  is  now  launched  by  them  for  a  Chicago  Hebrew 
Institute  that  shall  include  synagogue,  religious  schools, 
classes,  clubs,  gymnasium,  and  the  various  forms  of  mod 
ern  culture  and  entertainment,  physical,  moral  and  in-i 
tellectual,  under  Jewish  auspices,  with  the  doors  open  for' 


182  RELIGIOUS  ACTIVITY 

worship,  study,  and  recreation.  The  time  is  ripe  for  such 
a  movement.  The  Russian  Jews  are  overburdened  by  their 
obligations.  The  young  people,  particularly,  need  intelli 
gent,  unselfish,  enthusiastic  leadership.  Who  will  become 
the  torch-bearer  to  this  people,  singularly  gifted  with  re 
ligious  enthusiasm  and  respect  for  scholarship? 


**•' 
VI 


EDUCATIONAL  INFLUENCES 


EDUCATIONAL  INFLUENCES 

(A)  NEW  YORK 

The  agencies  at  work  for  the  education  of  the  Russian 
Jew  in  New  York  are  so  various  that  their  mere  enumera 
tion  would  extend,  in  all  probability,  over  a  whole  page  of 
this  present  volume.  In  the  wider  sense  attaching  to  the 
word  education  at  the  present  day  there  would  have  to  be 
included  in  such  an  enumeration  more  than  a  passing  ref 
erence  to  the  conditions,  physical,  industrial,  and  moral, 
in  which  the  lives  of  the  Jewish  immigrant  and  his  chil 
dren  are  set.  The  mere  geography  of  his  environment, 
when  consideration  is  had  for  its  effect  upon  overcrowd 
ing,  could  not  be  ignored.  The  influence  of  the  shop,  of 
the  home,  and  of  the  society  about  him,  would  have  to  be 
examined  and  estimated  if  one  would  gain  a  correct  con 
clusion  concerning  the  education  —  in  this,  its  wider  sense 
—  which  the  Jew  is  receiving  in  the  process  of  his  trans 
formation  from  an  Old-World  subject  into  a  citizen  of 
the  New. 

It  is  not,  however,  primarily  with  this  wider  aspect  of 
the  educational  problem  that  the  present  paper  has  to  do. 
In  its  narrower  sense,  education  includes  only  those  agen 
cies  that  are  consciously  at  work  for  the  training  of  mind, 
body  or  character.  In  a  sense  narrower  still,  the  term  ed 
ucation  is  sometimes  confined  to  the  first  of  these  three  — 
the  training  of  the  mind;  but  since  the  discoveries  of 
Froebel  and  Pestalozzi  of  the  value  of  the  children's 
play-hour,  to  say  nothing  of  the  possibilities  of  character- 
building  through  direct  moral  instruction,  this  would  be 
held  but  an  unsatisfactory  definition  of  the  province  of 
human  life  over  which  education,  as  a  science,  is  set  in 
authority. 

Such  conscious  agencies  for  the  education  of  the  people 
^re  everywhere  divided  into  three  classes: —  (1)  the  State 
directed;  (2)  those  instituted  and  carried  on  by  private 
philanthropists  whether  in  societies  or  as  individuals;  and 

184 


NEW  YORK 


185 


(3)  those  arising  from  the  people  themselves.  To  one 
or  another  of  these  three  classes  may  be  referred  every 
effort  making  at  present  for  the  education  of  the  Russian 
Jew  in  New  York. 

Of  course  the  first  of  all  such  agencies,  in  the  extent  of 
its  influence,  is  the  public  school.  There  are  public  schools 
in  New  York,  which,  on  the  Day  of  Atonement,  or  some 
other  religious  holiday,  are  almost  emptied  of  their  pupils. 
A  reference  to  the  subjoined  table1  will  give  ample  evi- 


SCHOOL  LOCATION 

131  272  2nd  St. 

79  42    1st    St. 

131  1239  E.  Houston  St. 

13  J  /239  E.  Houston  St. 

22  |  \  Stanton  and  Sheriff  Sts. 

22  j  I  Stanton  and  Sheriff  Sts. 

174  125    Attorney    St. 

20  |  j  Rivington  and  Fldridge  Sts. 

20  j  (  Rivington  and  Eldndge   Sts. 

160?  (Rivir"*tcri  and  Suffolk   Sts. 

160J  (Rivington  ajid  Suffolk  Sts. 

4  Rivington  iiid  Ridge  Sts. 

88  Rivington  and  Lewis  Sts. 

140  116    Norfolk   St. 

161  £)elancey  and  Ludlow  Sts. 

92  Broome    and    Ridge    Sts. 

120  '  187    Broome    St. 

44,}  J  Broome  and  Sheriff  Sts. 

345  \  Broome  and  Sheriff  Sts. 

1-10  •  •     Broome  and  Cannon   Sts. 

137  Grand  and  Ludlow  Sts. 

75  25  Norfolk  St. 

75  25   Norfolk   St. 

Hester  and  Chrystie  Sts. 

7  Hester  and  Chrystie  Sts. 

42  Hester  and  Orchard  Sts. 

42  Hester  and  Orchard  Sts. 

144  Hester   and   Allen   Sts. 

1 1  (  Henry  and  Catharine  Sts. 

if  (Henry  and  Catharine  Sts. 

2  116    Henry    St. 

147  289   E.    Broadway 

12  371  Madison  St. 

177}  (Monroe  and  Market  Sts. 

1775  (Monroe  and  Market  Sts. 

136  68    Monroe    St. 

31  Monroe  and  Gouverneur  Sts. 

112  83   Roosevelt  St. 


REGISTRATION  NO.  JEWS 


1448 
1800 
893 
2140 
1238 
2575 
1897 
2411 
2073 
1471 
1797 


1496 

2197 

951 

(G. 

D.) 

2203 

(P. 

D.) 

1267 

(B. 

D.) 

2607 

(P. 

D.) 

1925 

2474 

(B. 

D.) 

2168 

(G. 

D.) 

1482 

(B. 

D.) 

1806 

(P. 

D.) 

5183 

2895 

1617 

1797 

1741 

761 

992 

(B. 

D.) 

1940 

(P. 

D.) 

1654 

1565 

756 

(B. 

D.) 

1527 

(P. 

D.) 

1744 

(B. 

D.) 

1633 

(G. 

D.) 

1365 

(P. 

D.) 

1320 

(G. 

D.) 

1723 

1324 

(B. 

D.) 

1493 

(G. 

D.) 

3256 

2933 

2011 

1056 

(G. 

D.) 

1502 

(P. 

D.) 

630 

2144 

467 

64,605 


.2766, 
1610 
1784 
1705 
'•741 

914 
1903 
1391 
1552 

743 
1416 
1687 
1558 
1347 
1303 
1704 

938 
1077 
3238 
2732 
1748 
1032 
1409 

620 
2105 


61,103 


PER  CENT. 
JEWS 
99 
82 
94 
97 
98 
99 
98 
97 
96 
99 


96 
99 
99 
96 
91 
92 
98 
84 
99 
98 
93 
97 
95 
98 
99 
99 
71 
72 

93 

87 
98 
91 
98 


dence  of  this.  The  preponderance  of  Jewish  pupils  o^er 
all  others  in  the  schools  situated  below  Houston  Street  on 
the  East  Side  is  so  overwhelming  as  to  render  of  compara- 

1  The  table  was  made  up  by  the  editor  from  a  record  of  the  registration  and 
attendance  of  each  of  the  schools  on  October  1st,  1903,  which  was  the  Jewish 
Day  of  Atonement  of  that  year. 

Of  the  total  of  64,605  puoils  in  the  district.  61,103,  or  94.5  per  cent.,  are 
Jews. 


. 


J 


186  EDUCATIONAL  INFLUENCES 

lively  little  value  questions  directed  to  the  teachers  con 
cerning  the  relative  scholarship  and  aptitude  of  Jewish 
and  non-Jewish  pupils,  unless  these  teachers  have  had  ex 
perience  elsewhere.  Nevertheless,  there  is  much  in  the  tes 
timony  of  teachers  to  confirm  the  prevailing  impression  that 
these  pupils  —  the  children,  for  the  most  part,  of  poor 
Jewish  immigrants  from  Russia  —  are  among  the  bright 
est  in  attendance  at  the  public  schools.  Certainly  they 
rank  high  in  all  examinations  for  advancement  to  the  sec 
ondary  institutions  of  learning  such  as  the  high  schools 
and  city  college,  —  and  this  not  merely,  it  may  be  be 
lieved,  because  of  a  keener  instinct  of  competition. 
American  boys  have  this  instinct  in  an  equal  degree,  al 
though  it  may  be  true  that  it  is  more  strongly  developed 
in  the  young  Jew  than  in  other  children  of  foreign  birth 
or  parentage.  In  itself,  and  provided  that  it  submits  to 
correction,  it  may  be  little  more  than  -the  index  of  an  alert 


'  \bjfi 

In  spite  -  of  the  bad  industrial  conditions  prevailing 
among  the,  Jews  of  the  lower  East  Side,  the  parents,  or  if 
not  the  p^ents,  the  children  themselves  are  quick  to  avail 
themselves"  of  whatever  privileges  their  new  surroundings 
extend  to  them.  Among  these  the  privilege  of  most  worth 
is  the  education  offered  them,  and  they  are  not  slow  to 
appreciate  its  advantages.  The  children  begin  their  at 
tendance  at  the  public  school  within  a  very  short  time  after 
their  arrival  here,  the  younger  ones  finding  their  way  into 
the  numerous  kindergartens  connected  with  private  insti 
tutions.  Very  soon,  especially  to  the  little  girls,  the  public 
school  teacher  becomes  a  strong,  in  many  instances  the 
strongest,  influence  in  the  lives  of  these  children.  They 
learn  to  look  upon  her  as  a  model  of  good  taste  —  first,  it 
is  true,  chiefly  in  external  things,  such  as  clothes  and  man 
ner  of  speech,  —  but  afterwards,  very  often,  as  a  pattern 
of  deportment  as  welL  Happy  the  teacher  who  can  "  live 
up  to  "  the  ideal  that  has  been  formed  of  her!  These 
children,  most  teachers  report,  are  singularly  docile,  —  not 
the  girls  only,  but  the  boys  as  well.  In  some  cases,  indeed, 
this  docility  amounts  to  a  defect  (of  which,  however, 
teachers  are  not  wont  to  complain),  —  the  children  seeming 
to  lack  those  healthy  instincts  for  mischievous  play  that 
are  the  accompaniment  of  happier  childhood.  Later, 
however,  when  the  influence  of  the  street  (not  always  a 
bad  one)  has  had  time  to  make  itself  apparent,  they  are 


NEW  YOEK  187 

apt  to  develop  the  high  spirits  that  are  a  prerogative  of 
their  years. 

Of  the  interest  and  ability  displayed  by  these  children 
of  the  public  school  age,  let  some  of  their  teachers  speak: 

"  Jewish  children,  as  a  rule,  are  bright,  attentive  and 
studious. ' ' 

"  They  are  generally  anxious  to  learn,  and  except  in 
English,  compare  favorably  with  other  nationalities." 

"  They  rank  among  the  highest.  They  are  far  more 
earnest  and  ambitious  [than  other  scholars]  and  many  of 
them  supplement  their  school  work  with  outside  reading." 

"  As  a  race,  their  ability  to  comprehend  instruction  is 
excellent.  The  poorer  class  of  Jewish  children  is  ahead  of 
the  poorer  class  of  other  nationalities.  They  are  not  so 
smart  (?)  as  the  average  American,  but  have  greater  emo 
tional  capacity.  They  are  more  receptive  than  self -active. " 

Other  teachers  have  observed  no  marked  distinction  be 
tween  their  pupils  of  Jewish  birth  and  those  belonging  to 
other  races. 

Concerning  the  scholarship  developed,  the  teacher  last 
quoted  says,  "  They  seem  to  grasp  '  beautiful  ideas  '  eager 
ly.  Manual  training  they  enjoy." 

Other  opinions  are : 

"  They  have  a  special  aptitude  for  studies  that  appeal 
to  the  imagination,  while  matters  of  fact  excite  less 
interest. ' ' 

11  They  excel  in  mathematics,  English  and  history.  They 
are  deficient  in  drawing  and  shop-work." 

"  Their  scholarship  is  affected,  I  think,  by  their  ig 
norance  of  other  surroundings  than  those  to  which  they  are 
habituated.  .  .  .  There  is  a  decided  lack  of  the  power 
of  concentration  and  steady  application,  owing,  probably, 
to  a  very  nervous  temperament.  The  study  of  good  Eng 
lish  poetry  seems  to  have  developed  a  writing  in  rhyme, 
in  a  good  percentage ;  in  the  few,  it  is  even  poetry, ' '-  -  but 
the  same  teacher  adds,  in  another  place,  "  We  rarely  find 
the  artistic  temperament  except  as  expressing  itself  in 
music. ' ' 

Most  teachers  agree  that  the  young  Jewish  children  are 
exceedingly  patriotic,  although  it  is  suggested  that  the 
patriotism  must  be,  in  some  cases,  of  a  merely  imitative 
order,  considering  the  tender  age  at  which  it  is  developed. 
One  principal  expresses  the  opinion  that  the  Jewish  boys 
of  the  East  Side  "  are  born  politicians  and  their  chief  in- 


188  EDUCATIONAL  INFLUENCES 

terest  in  American  institutions  arises  from  the  fact  that 
they  furnish  an  area  for  political  contests."  Certainly 
the  East  Side  boy  grows  up  in  a  perilous  atmosphere,  po 
litically  considered,  and  too  often  develops  into  the  thing 
to  which  we  need  not  believe  him  born.  This  public  school 
"  patriotism,"  of  which  we  hear  so  much,  is  by  no  means 
a  product  deserving  of  unqualified  praise.  With  no  desire 
to  disparage  the  good  work  of  the  schools  in  familiarizing 
the  little  foreigner  with  the  more  elementary  of  those  ideas 
that  lie  at  the  root  of  the  national  political  institutions,  it 
is  doubtful  whether  in  practice  he  is  not  very  often  im 
bued  with  a  military  chauvinism  very  far  removed  from 
the  true  spirit  of  American  patriotism.  We  are  all  rather 
prone  to  forget  that  it  is  the  coarser  side  of  any  abstract 
proposition  that  inevitably  impresses  itself  upon  the  minds 
of  boys,  of  whatever  nationality,  and  that  the  concrete 
image  that  is  carried  away  from  this  "  patriotic  "  cult  is 
apt  to  be  the  mere  drum-beating  and  flag  raising  that 
makes  such  easy  and  instant  appeal  to  instincts  but  little 
allied  to  those  of  justice,  fair-play,  and  an  elevated  love 
for  humanity  as  a  whole. 

Coming  back  to  the  subject  of  the  proficiency,  as  well 
as  the  special  aptitudes,  displayed  by  the  Russian  Jewish 
children  in  the  public  schools  as  compared  with  those  of 
other  nationalities,  it  does  not  appear  to  the  present 
writer  that  sufficient  material  is  at  hand  to  warrant  the 
formation  of  a  judgment  having  much  claim  to  accuracy. 
As  a  general  rule,  and  taking  into  consideration  the  moral 
as  well  as  the  mental  qualities  that  go  to  the  formation  of 
good  scholarship,  it  will  probably  be  found  that  the  best 
th 


scholars  come  from  te  best  homes.  Now  4he^  Jewish  peo 
ple  have  long  been  celebrated  for  the  beauty  of  their  fam 
ily  life,  and  we  should  therefore  expect  them  to  furnish  a 
good  percentage  of  the  best  scholarship  realized  in  the 
schools;  but  it  cannot  be  disputed  that  the  homes  of  too 
many  of  the  recent  refugees  from  Russia,  Roumania,  and 
other  European  countries,  partly  by  reason  of  industrial 
conditions,  in  part  owing  to  a  moral  break-down  incident 
to  the  upturning  of  the  tradition  of  centuries,  have  ceased 
to  be  homes  at  all  in  the  true  sense  of  the  word,  and  it 
would  be  unfair  to  look  to  the  children  of  these  dwellings 
for  an  exemplification  of  the  highest  attainable  type  of 
scholarship.  Often,  indeed,  individual  scholars  come  sur 
prisingly  near  it,  especially  on  the  intellectual  side,  and 


NEW  YORK  189 

it  is  no  part  of  the  writer's  purpose  to  suggest  that  as  a 
class  they  fall  farther  below  it  than  the  equally  unfortu 
nate  of  other  nationalities. 

It  seems  clear  that  whatever  the  defects  of  the  scholar 
ship  realized,  they  are  attributable  as  much  to  the  teacher 
and  to  the  system  employed  as  to  the  pupils.  Considering 
the  responsiveness  of  Jewish  children  to  imaginative 
stimuli  of  one  variety  or  another,  it  would  seem  desirable 
to  emphasize  to  a  greater  degree  than  is  done  in  other  mat 
ters  such  as  the  training  of  the  power  of  observation  and 
the  cultivation  of  habits  of  application.  These  receive 
admirable  illustration  in  the  system  of  manual  training 
afforded  by  the  work  shops,  but  the  work  shops  are  few  in 
number,  and  there  seems  at  present  but  little  disposition 
on  the  part  of  the  school  authorities  to  increase  them  and 
extend  their  efficiency.  The  probability  is,  if  this  were 
done,  that  they  .would  form  an  admirable  corrective  to  the 
too  exclusively  intellectual  activity  of  the  class-rooms. 

One  of  the  great  aims  of  all  education,  undoubtedly,  is 
to  develop  the  true  individuality  of  the  child;  and  it  is 
not  surprising  that  but  little  attention  can  be  devoted  to 
this  in  the  overcrowded  class-rooms  of  our  public  schools. 
But  sometimes  directly  wrong  methods  are  adopted,  as 
when  a  teacher  encourages  in  a  forward  or  self-conscious 
child  the  tendencies  that  require  stimulation  in  an  unduly 
retiring  or  modest  one.  There  seems  to  be  a  smaller 
proportion  of  bashfulness  among  Jewish  children  than 
among  those  of  other  nationalities,  and  therefore  less  need 
to  have  resort  to  devices,  such  as  public  declamation  and 
quotation-citing,  designed  to  overcoms  this  evil.  I  have 
often  been  present  at  such  exhibitions  in  down-town  school- 
houses  where  the  display  of  vanity  and  of  a  certain  self- 
conscious  forwardness  inconsistent  with  the  modesty  of 
childhood  was  painful  in  the  extreme,  and  I  have  observed 
such  a  display  more  frequently  among  the  little  girls  than 
among  their  little  brothers. 

The  story  is  told  (by  President  G.  Stanley  Hall,  I  think) 
of  a  class  of  children  in  a  Boston  school,  the  majority  of 
whom  believed  the  real  size  of  a  cow  to  be  the  space  oc 
cupied  by  its  picture  in  their  spelling  books.  This  points 
a  finger  at  the  city  child's  ordinary  ignorance  of  nature 
and  country  surroundings,  and  we  should  expect  to  find 
this  ignorance  intensified  in  'the  little  Jewish  children 
whose  lives  have  been  confined  within  such  narrow  city 


190  EDUCATIONAL  INFLUENCES 

boundaries  as  limit  the  district  cramped  on  two  sides  by 
the  river,  and  on  a  third  side  by  the  Bowery,  that  broad  and 
dangerous  thoroughfare  which  an  unwritten  rule  forbids 
the  younger  children  ever  to  cross.  The  remedy  for  this 
is  not  school,  but  more  parks  and  open  air  life,  and  the 
remedy  is  being  rapidly  applied,  every  year  adding  to  the 
number  of  parks  and  open-air  play  grounds.  The  Jewish 
people  are  generous  patrons  of  the  parks,  and  with  the 
natural  intelligence  of  the  children,  it  is  probable  that  the 
defect  of  experience  which  at  present  hampers  some  de 
partments  of  the  school  work  will  tend  more  and  more  to 
disappear. 

When  we  come  to  a  consideration  of  the  secondary 
schools,  we  are  struck  with  the  large  percentage  of  Jewish 
scholars  and  their  relatively  high  rank,  particularly  in  ex 
amination  tests.  Of  course,  a  considerable  proportion  of 
these  students  are  the  children  of  parents  who  have  been 
settled  long  in  this  country,  and  are  not,  therefore,  to  be 
identified  with  the  class  we  are  studying,  but  in  the  re 
cently  established  boys'  high  schools,  the  children  of  re 
cent  Jewish  immigrants  numbered  about  41  per  cent,  when 
inquiry  was  made.  These  high  schools  (both  for  boys  and 
girls)  are  doing  an  excellent  work,  both  in  filling  a  need 
long  unsupplied  in  the  city's  educational  system,  and  in 
setting  the  pace  for  a  higher  standard  than  has  hitherto 
prevailed  in  such  institutions  as  the  City  College  (for 
boys)  and  the  Normal  College  (for  girls).  The  high  school 
teachers  speak  in  the  highest  terms  of  the  natural  ability 
and  persistence  of  their  pupils  of  Russian  Jewish  origin 
and  have  many  instances  to  relate  of  hardships  overcome 
by  boy  and  girl  scholars  in  their  struggle  for  an  education. 
The  girls,  in  especial,  seem  anxious  to  make  up  for  every 
lesson  they  are  compelled  to  lose,  and  after  the  holidays 
would  keep  the  teachers  occupied  until  the  late  evening  of 
every  day  hearing  omitted  recitations,  had  not  a  rule  been 
adopted  excusing  their  absences.  It  is  not  with  the  grade 
of  scholarship  attained  by  their  pupils  that  criticism  (if 
criticism  there  is  to  be)  need  concern  itself,  so  much  as 
with  the  motive  and  spirit  at  work  beneath  their  activity. 
That  the  motive  of  commercial  advantage  holds  a  very 
high  place  in  the  whole  movement  is  the  common  testi 
mony  of  teachers.  Parents  who  are  themselves  at  a  disad 
vantage  as  compared  with  their  neighbors  would  naturally 
be  quick  to  respond  to  such  a  motive  in  behalf  of  their 


NEW  YORK  191 

children,  and  there  are  many  indications  that  a  lively 
realization  of  this  is  present  with  the  children  as  well.  The 
instinct  of  success,  so  strong  in  the  Jewish  people,  accounts 
for  much  prize-taking  and  high  standing  in  the  class-room, 
but  for  the  formation  of  a  finer  type  of  scholarship  there 
is  necessary  the  cultivation  of  a  greater  degree  of  disin 
terestedness.  The  comparative  absence  of  such  a  quality 
(difficult,  indeed,  of  development  under  the  prevailing  in 
dustrial  conditions)  is  what  constitutes  the  principal  flaw 
in  the  scholarship  at  present  attained  by  the  children  of 
Jewish  immigrants.  That  it  will  tend  to  disappear  as  a 
more  comfortable  material  standard  is  realized,  is  easy  to 
believe  when  we  bethink  ourselves  of  the  strain  of  ideality, 
the  endowment  of  imaginative  power,  that  exists  side  by 
side  in  their  souls  with  the  instinct  for  material  advance 
ment. 

Two  institutions,  already  mentioned  (the  City  College 
and  the  Normal  College),  stand  at  the  head  of  the  city's 
free  educational  system  and  in  both  the  attendance  of  Jew 
ish  pupils  is  very  large.  These  two  institutions,  together 
with  the  Training  School  for  teachers,  a  state  institution, 
supply  the  great  majority  of  the  new  teachers  who  are  re 
ceived  each  year  into  the  city's  public  school  system.  What 
proportion  of  these  new  teachers  are  Russian  Jews  would 
be  an  interesting  inquiry,  were  the  facts  accessible.  That 
the  teaching  profession  is  an  attractive  one  to  the  chil 
dren  of  these  'immigrants  admits  of  no  doubt  whatever. 
The  only  real  question  concerns  the  degree  of  its  attrac 
tiveness  as  compared  with  other  professions,  such  as  law 
and  medicine,  and  this  is  difficult  to  determine,  among 
other  reasons,  for  the  economic  one  that  the  pursuit  of  all 
special  studies  involves  an  outlay  of  time  and  money  be 
yond  what  is  commonly  expended  upon  obtaining  the  qual 
ifications  necessary  for  a  teacher's  equipment. 

Finally,  with  respect  to  the  higher  learning,  the  great 
increase  in  the  number  of  Jews  in  attendance  upon  the 
classes  at  Columbia  and  the  University  of  New  York  has 
been  the  subject  of  recent  remark.  That  this  increase  is 
drawn  from  the  class  of  recent  immigrants  is,  on  the  face 
of  it,  probable,  and  can  be  easily  demonstrated  by  a  refer 
ence  to  the  secondary  schools  of  which  these  pupils  are 
graduates.  Nor  is  the  number  confined  to  those  who  are 
pursuing  the  full  university  course,  since  many  whose  eco 
nomic  position  compelled  them  to  accept  employment  as 


192  EDUCATIONAL  INFLUENCES 

teachers  or  otherwise  supplement  their  earlier  training 
by  attending  special  courses  held  at  hours  adapted  to  their 
convenience. 

Coming  now  to  the  private  agencies  at  work  in  New 
York  for  the  education  and  spiritual  advancement  of  the 
Russian  Jews,  we  find  a  great  number,  of  which  it  will  only 
be  possible,  within  our  present  limits,  to  go  into  particu 
lars  concerning  a  few.  Some  of  these  institutions  are  sup 
ported  and  managed  by  American  Jews  for  the  benefit  of 
their  co-religionists  from  Kussia  and  other  parts  of  East 
ern  Europe;  others  are  conducted  entirely  by  non-Jews  on 
a  completely  non-sectarian  basis,  and  the  people  sought 
to  be  benefited  avail  themselves,  without  distinction,  of 
both.  This  readiness  to  embrace  the  opportunities  offered, 
combined  with  the  keen  intellectual  curiosity  of  the  race, 
has  rendered  this  people,  in  the  opinion  of  many,  the  most 
promising  of  all  in  the  field  of  social  experiment. 

The  largest  single  work  of  the  character  now  under  dis 
cussion  is  carried  on  in  New  York  by  the  Educational  Al 
liance, —  a  union,  originally,  of  three  societies,  Jewish  in 
their  membership,  established  to  bring  culture  within  the 
reach  of  the  more  destitute  of  the  race.  The  consistent 
aim  of  this  institution,  since  its  foundation,  has  been  the 
Americanization  of  the  foreign  Jew,  and  the  first  steps  in 
this  process  (the  English  classes  for  immigrants)  have  fol 
lowed  closely  upon  the  earlier  Baron  de  Hirsch  classes, 
long  housed  in  the  building  of  the  Alliance.  In  these 
classes  it  happens  not  seldom  that  children  are  found  on 
the  very  day  of  their  landing  in  America.  They  are  regu 
larly  prepared,  both  as  regards  language  and  scholarship, 
to  enter  the  class  at  the  public  school  appropriate  to 
their  age.  During  the  season  of  the  year  when  the  public 
evening  schools  are  closed,  evening  classes  for  immigrants 
are  opened  by  the  Alliance,  so  that  no  time  may  be  lost  in 
the  acquisition  of  the  first  requisite  of  intelligent  citizen 
ship. 

But  besides  these  elementary  classes  designed  to  meet 
the  needs  of  the  immigrants  and  their  young  children, 
there  are  classes  for  nearly  every  grade  of  culture,  the 
subject-list  including  languages,  literature,  history,  civics, 
mathematics,  natural  science,  music,  cookery,  book-keeping, 
drawing,  millinery,  typewriting,  philosophy,  gymnastics, 
and  religion.  At  first  the  most  successful  of  these  classes 
were  those  that  addressed  themselves  to  a  practical  result 


NEW  YOBE  193 

—  the  enabling  of  pupils  to  pass  the  state,  or  regents '  ex 
aminations  in  specified  subjects.  A  change,  greatly  to  be 
commended,  has  recently  been  introduced,  to  favor  the 
classes  designed  to  stimulate  general  culture,  with  the 
result  that  "  cramming  "  for  an  examination  is  now  dis 
couraged.  As  a  result,  principally,  of  the  influence  of  the 
late  Prof.  Thomas  Davidson  and  Mr.  Edward  King,  a 
group  of  earnest  students  of  the  higher  laws  of  history 
and  social  science  has  been  formed,  and  some  of  these  are 
beginning  to  take  an  active  part  in  the  conduct  of  the  out 
lying  portions  of  the  institution's  work.  There  is  some 
reason  to  suppose  that  too  great  leniency  was  observed  at 
first  in  the  matter  of  permitting  students  to  select  at  ran 
dom  the  classes  they  preferred  to  attend,  the  evil  showing 
itself  in  a  constant  shifting  interest  from  one  subject  to 
another,  as  one  or  another  enthusiasm  predominated  in  an 
unripe  brain.  Greater  systemization  and  a  limitation 
upon  the  number  of  classes  permitted  to  be  attended  by  a 
single  pupil  have  assisted  in  reducing  this  tendency.  The 
building  of  the  Alliance  includes  an  assembly-hall,  a 
library  and  a  gymnasium  in  addition  to  its  class,  club  and 
play-rooms,  and  lectures  (for  the  most  part  under  the 
auspices  of  the  Board  of  Education),  entertainments,  ex 
hibitions,  and  concerts  follow  one  another  in  quick  suc 
cession  through  the  winter  and  spring  months.  In  partic 
ular,  the  concert  feature  has  been  carefully  developed,  the 
resources  of  the  neighborhood  being  drawn  upon  to  form 
a  promising  chorus  and  orchestra.  Picture  exhibitions 
have  also  been  held,  and  one  was  held  in  which  the  work 
of  East  Side  artists  alone  was  illustrated.  On  Sunday 
afternoons  children's  entertainments  have  been  held, 
while  legal  holidays  and  Jewish  festivals  are  always  hon 
ored  with  appropriate  observances.  A  comparatively  recent 
departure  has  been  to  open  the  building  on  Friday  even 
ings  for  social  purposes  only. 

The  three  leading  social  settlements  of  the  lower  East 
Side  are  the  Nurses',  College,  and  University  Settlements, 
the  first  two  having  women  as  residents,  the  third  having 
men.  Of  the  work  of  these  institutions  it  is,  perhaps,  cor 
rect  to  say  that  it  is  individual  rather  than  general,  in 
tensive  rather  than  widespread. 

The  children  that  begin  in  the  kindergarten  and  grow 
up  through  a  whole  series  of  clubs,  coming  to  the  house  of 
the  settlement  for  most  of  the  amusement  and  some  little 


194  EDUCATIONAL  INFLUENCES 

of  the  discipline  of  their  most  impressionable  years,  have 
a  chance  to  acquire  something  that  shall  exert  a  profound 
influence  upon  their  future  lives.  The  danger  is  lest  they 
come  to  regard  themselves  as  a  society  apart,  by  reason 
of  an  external  superiority  of  manners  and  taste,  or,  escap 
ing  that,  lest  they  mistake  the  refinement  of  settlement 
life  for  the  end  in  itself  and  content  themselves  with  an 
effort  to  realize  that,  careless  of  the  more  pressing  con 
siderations  that  occupy  their  less  privileged  neighbors. 
But  though  such  dangers  exist,  the  young  men  and  women 
are  numerous  who  owe  to  the  settlement  an  enlarged  pur 
pose  and  a  more  satisfying  outlook  upon  the  world  than 
they  would  have  been  likely  to  obtain,  at  least  so  early  in 
their  lives,  without  its  instrumentality.  Except  among  the 
clubs  of  the  youngest  there  is  little  direct  instruction  in 
any  settlement  with  which  I  happen  to  be  acquainted, — 
and  this  not  because  it  was  undesired,  but  because  classes 
did  not  seem  to  flourish  in  the  atmosphere  of  sociability 
and  light-hearted  amusement  that  usually  prevailed  there. 
But  all  the  more,  on  this  account,  is  the  influence  per- 
meative,  that  it  does  not  seem  to  come  in  the  way  made 
familiar,  and  therefore  disliked,  of  the  instruction  in 
school,  but  rather  to  be  distilled  through  the  medium  of 
games,  conversation,  etc.,  until  it  is  unconsciously  ab 
sorbed.  Therefore  I  think  that  the  little  immigrant  chil 
dren  of  the  East  Side  who  have  drifted  into  the  settle 
ments  (only  a  very  small  proportion  of  the  whole)  have 
come  out  of  them  again  much  modified  in  character,  pur 
poses,  opinions  —  in  nearly  every  way. 

The  value  of  a  technical  training  for  boys,  fitting  them 
to  practice  the  mechanical  trades,  has  been  recognized  by 
Jewish  philanthropists  as  having  a  special  application  to 
their  race,  by  reason  of  some  inherited  deficiencies  in  this 
regard;  and  in  illustration  of  their  belief  two  admirable 
institutions  —  the  Hebrew  Technical  Institute  and  the 
Baron  de  Hirsch  Trade  School  have  come  into  existence  in 
New  York.  The  first  of  these,  the  Technical  Institute, 
does  not  teach  boys  a  trade,  but  takes  them  at  an  early 
age  (twelve  and  a  half  years)  and  instructs  them  in  such 
studies  as  will  be  most  likely  to  fit  them  for  success  in  me 
chanical  pursuits.  For  the  first  two  years  this  instruction 
is  quite  general  in  character,  but  during  the  last  year  they 
are  permitted  to  specialize  their  studies  in  the  direction  of 
the  particular  taste  they  may  have  acquired,  without 


NEW  YORK  195 

actually  studying  a  trade.  The  studies  necessary  to  the 
development  of  a  general  intelligence  —  English,  mathe 
matics  and  history  —  are  maintained  throughout  the  three- 
year  course,  and  along  with  them  goes  a  graduated  instruc 
tion  in  wood-work,  free  hand  and  mechanical  drawing, 
metal  work,  and  applied  science.  The  tuition,  tools,  and 
text-books  are  all  furnished  free,  together  with  shower 
baths,  bathing  forming  part  of  the  exercises,  and  the  only 
charge  made  in  connection  with  the  institution  is  that  of 
one  cent  a  day,  or  five  cents  a  week,  for  the  warm  lunch 
provided  in  the  school  refectory.  The  present  number  of 
pupils  is  249,  and  the  school  has  476  living  graduates,  of 
whom  72  per  cent,  are  following  mechanical  work. 

At  the  Baron  de  Hirsch  Trade  School  the  instruction 
is  also  free,  but  the  applicant  for  admission,  who  must  be 
sixteen  years  old,  must  show  that  he  has  some  means  of 
support  while  learning  the  trade.  The  aim  of  the  school 
is  to  afford  a  working  knowledge  of  one  of  the  following 
trades:  Plumbing  and  gas-fitting,  carpentry,  house  paint 
ing,  sign-painting,  machinist  and  electrician.  The  time 
taken  to  acquire  this  knowledge  is  five  and  one-half 
months,  the  first  portion  of  the  course  being  devoted  to  a 
teaching  of  the  principles  of  the  trade  and  the  latter  part 
to  their  practical  application.  A  preference  is  given,  in 
the  matter  of  admission,  to  Jewish  boys  born  in  Russia 
and  Roumania,  and  statistics  taken  from  seven  successive 
classes  show  that  these  boys  form  about  48.3  per  cent,  of 
the  whole  number  of  graduates,  the  other  pupils  of  foreign 
birth  numbering  19.2  per  cent.,  while  32.5  per  cent,  are 
Jewish  boys  born  in  the  United  States.  Over  77  per  cent, 
of  the  graduates  of  the  previous  five  years  were  reported 
in  1899  to  be  still  working  at  the  trades  learned  in  the 
school. 

Closely  adjoining  the  boys'  trade  school  is  the  Training 
School  for  Girls,  instituted  by  Baroness  de  Hirsch.  This 
contains  35  training  girls,  who  live  there  all  the  time 
and  receive  instruction  in  millinery,  cooking,  washing, 
machine-operating,  hand-sewing,  and  dress-making,  be 
sides  sheltering  some  65  more  working  girls,  who  pay  three 
dollars  a  week  for  their  board.  Provision  is  made  for  30 
free  scholars.  The  institution  is  non-sectarian,  Baroness 
de  Hirsch  having  prescribed  as  a  condition  to  this  gift  that 
ten  per  cent,  of  the  inmates  should  be  Gentiles. 

The  trade  education  for  girls  is  looked  out  for  by  the 


196  EDUCATIONAL  INFLUENCES 

Hebrew  Technical  School  for  Girls,  which  has  a  commer 
cial  department,  containing,  according  to  the  last  report, 
108  pupils,  and  one  of  manual  training,  containing  45 
pupils.  The  girls  attending  this  school  are  about  fifteen 
years  old,  and  are  all  graduates  of  the  public  schools.  The 
aim  of  the  commercial  department  is  to  turn  out  good  as 
sistant  book-keepers  and  stenographers;  and  the  graduates 
readily  secure  positions.  The  graduates  of  the  manual 
training  department  are  also  making  profitable  use  of 
their  knowledge.  The  school  is  quite  strict  in  its  require 
ments  both  at  entrance  and  graduation,  no  girl  being  re 
ceived  who  cannot  pass  a  good  examination  in  English, 
and  diplomas  being  refused  to  those  whose  proficiency  in 
the  subjects  taught  has  not  come  up  to  the  standard.  The 
school  has  grown  very  rapidly,  and  looks  forward  to  a 
career  of  growing  usefulness. 

The  ^  passage  over  from  institutions  of  the  character  of 
those  just  described  to  efforts  at  educational  improvement 
having  their  origin  in  the  people  themselves  may  well  come 
through  the  People's  Singing  Classes,  an  institution  hav 
ing  some  of  the  better  elements  of  both,  but  more  of  the  lat 
ter  than  the  former.  The  impulse  for  the  formation  of 
this  great  union  of  working-people  for  the  study  of  song 
came,  indeed,  not  from  the  people,  but  from  its  present 
director,  Mr.  Frank  Damrosch;  and  he  and  his  assistants 
supply  the  necessary  instruction  without  pecuniary  com 
pensation,  but  this  not  from  the  motive  of  charity,  so  much 
as  out  of  a  disinterested  love  of  the  musical  art  and  a  de 
sire  for  its  dissemination  among  the  people.  The  people, 
on  their  side,  pay  the  entire  expenses  of  the  movement, 
which  has  never  received  a  contribution  from  anyone  out 
side  of  it,  and  undertake  besides  its  entire  management, 
electing  its  officers  and  committees,  who  gratuitously  give 
in  its  service  the  time  snatched  from  their  working-hours. 
It  may,  therefore,  be  best  described  as  a  great  co-partner 
ship  for  the  furtherance  of  a  given  end  —  the  extension 
of  the  love  and  culture  of  music  among  the  working- 
people  ;  a  co-partnership  to  which  each  contributes  what  is 
his  to  give,  and  in  which  none  feels  himself  the  recipient 
of  charity.  Music  is  still  the  art  to  which  the  mass  of  man 
kind  is  most  strongly  inclined,  and  when  compared  with 
the  plastic  arts  —  painting,  sculpture  and  architecture  — 
its  appeal  appears  to  be  relatively  stronger  in  the  Jewish 
race  than  among  other  peoples.  Certainly,  some  of  the 


NEW  TOEK  197 

most  earnest  and  enthusiastic  workers  in  the  musical  cause 
since  the  inception  of  the  People's  Singing  Classes  have 
come  from  the  Russian  Jewish  population  of  the  lower 
East  Side. 

Among  what  may  be  called  the  native  forces  at  work 
for  the  education  of  the  Russian  Jew  a  high  place  must 
be  assigned  to  the  socialist  propaganda.  The  mind  of 
many  a  young  man,  depressed  by  the  soul-deadening  con 
ditions  of  a  sweat-shop  existence,  would  never  have  awak 
ened  to  the  higher  life  of  the  intellect  in  response  to  any 
stimulus  less  immediate  and  personal  than  that  extended 
by  the  socialist  theories  of  society.  Clubs  and  classes  in 
numerable  for  the  study  of  economics  and  history,  science 
and  literature,  have  grown  up  in  the  work  of  the  socialist 
movement,  and  if  the  knowledge  acquired  was  often  one 
sided,  because  studied  in  the  shadow  of  a  theory  to  which 
all  the  facts  must  be  made  to  conform,  still  the  ideal  of  a 
regenerated  society  was  present  to  inspire  other  faculties 
than  the  intellect.  Unfortunately  for  their  cause,  many 
of  the  older  socialists  adopted  methods  of  propaganda 
modeled  more  upon  German  than  American  patterns,  and 
this  forfeited  the  sympathy  of  a  young  element  that  grew 
up  in  closer  touch  with  American  ideas. 

Anyone  who  knows  the  East  Side  knows  that  it  swarms 
with  clubs  almost  as  much  as  it  swarms  with  sweat-shops 
and  peddlers'  carts.  Some  of  them  owe  their  origin  to  the 
schoolroom,  to  the  settlement,  or  to  the  stray  philanthro 
pist  who  affords  them  "  a  local  habitation  and  a  name," 
but  a  vast  host  of  them  are  of  spontaneous  generation,  and 
constitute  an  expression  of  needs  that  are  not  the  less  gen 
uine  because  sometimes  unconscious.  Boys'  and  girls' 
clubs  are  so  numerous  that  lately  the  school  authorities 
have  been  brought  to  see  the  wisdom  of  opening  a  limited 
number  of  school-buildings  in  the  evening  to  serve  as 
"  play-centres"  and  to  supply  the  want  for  club  space. 
It  is  noticeable  that  nearly  all  of  these  open  schools  are 
on  the  lower  East  Side,  the  demand  for  them  in  other  parts 
of  the  city  being  as  yet  comparatively  small.  The  boys' 
clubs  nearly  all  indulge  in  debates  and  have  a  "  literary  ': 
programme,  one  of  the  elected  officers  being  usually  an 
"  editor,"  who  conducts  a  manuscript  journal  in  which 
original  matter  may  appear  together  with  quotations  from 
well-known  writers,  the  whole  being  liberally  seasoned 
with  "  jokes."  Much  oratory  and  some  juvenile  eloquence 


198  EDUCATIONAL  INFLUENCES 

is  developed  in  the  debates,  and  the  effect  of  this  upon  the 
bright  boys  of  the  race  is  generally  bad,  since  it  is  apt  to 
start  them  upon  careers  of  law  and  politics  which,  under 
prevailing  conditions,  tend  rapidly  to  corrupt  the  truthful 
and  scrupulous  instincts  of  youth.  Circles  for  quiet 
study  are  more  rare,  but  these  do  exist,  and  excellent  work 
of  a  public  character  such  as  that  accomplished  by  Col. 
Waring 's  Street-Cleaning  Brigade,  has  been  done  by  boys' 
clubs,  but  this  usually  under  the  direction  of  a  leader  from 
without.  The  little  girls'  clubs,  while  far  more  restricted 
in  their  interests  than  the  boys',  are  subject  to  fewer 
temptations  and  under  the  influence  of  reading  and  quiet 
work,  have  been  productive  of  much  good  to  their  mem 
bers.  At  a  later  age,  these  clubs,  both  youths'  and  maid 
ens'  divide  sharply  into  two  classes,  one  of  which  is  in 
spired  by  an  ideal  of  some  abstract  subject  or  of  one  con 
nected  with  their  particular  trade  or  employment,  the 
other  by  an  ideal  of  pleasure  with  which  is  sometimes  con 
nected  a  charitable  purpose.  In  clubs  of  the  first  class 
earnest  work  is  often  accomplished,  though  there  is  apt 
to  come  a  time  in  the  life  of  every  such  club  when  the  per 
sonal  interests  of  its  members,  love  and  the  starting  of  in 
dividual  careers,  come  to  interrupt  the  course  of  its  activ 
ity.  Among  the  older  people,  no  clubs  or  associations  for 
mutual  improvement  other  than  of  a  material  order,  as 
exemplified  in  the  lodges  and  benevolent  societies,  exist.  A 
league  of  young  men 's  clubs  under  the  title  of  ' '  Federa 
tion  of  East  Side  Clubs"  has  recently  been  formed  for  dis 
cussion  and  action  upon  matters  of  common  interest  affect 
ing  the  welfare  of  the  neighborhood,  and  much  good  is  to  be 
anticipated  from  the  existence  of  such  a  body. 

In  the  foregoing  review  of  the  educational  influences  at 
work  among  the  Russian  Jews  of  New  York,  nothing  has 
been  said  of  the  libraries  —  Astor,  Columbia,  New  York 
Free  Circulating,  and  others  —  to  which  they  have  resort 
in  so  great  numbers.  If  the  place  to  speak  of  libraries  is 
not  wholly  that  assigned  to  influences  of  self-help,  it  comes 
pretty  close  to  being  so.  The  library,  indeed,  is  provided 
by  others,  but  nothing  can  make  it  of  service  to  the  people 
if  they  do  not  themselves  manifest  the  disposition  to  use 
it.  This  disposition  is  certainly  present  in  a  large  pro 
portion  of  the  recent  Jewish  immigrants,  even  among 
many  who  are  seriously  hampered  in  the  struggle  for  learn 
ing  by  the  economic  conditions  of  their  lives.  It  is  this 


NEW  YORK  199 

disposition,  developed  into  an  attitude  habitual  to  them  in 
the  face  of  every  opportunity  with  which  they  are  brought 
into  contact,  joined  to  their  natural  ability,  that  will  vin- 
dictate  the  claim  of  the  Eussian  Jewish  people  to  a  high 
place  among  the  intellectually-disposed  nations  of  the 
earth. 


(B)  PHILADELPHIA 

The  observer  of  conditions  in  the  lower  section  of  the 
city  is  surprised  by  the  remarkable  intellectual  interest  of 
the  Russian  Jew.  Accustomed  to  associate  a  low  intel 
lectual  plane  with  a  low  economic  plane,  and  to  expect  a 
lack  of  learning  where  there  is  a  lack  of  the  order  and 
grace  of  the  well-clad  and  the  outwardly  polished,  he  is 
surprised  that  amid  the  so-called  "  slum  ':  population 
there  should  be  a  people  who  have  a  high  standard  of 
ability,  an  intense  desire  to  acquire  knowledge,  and  great 
strength  of  purpose  in  carrying  it  out.  To  class  this  peo 
ple  as  to  educational  ideals  with  the  mass  of  low  class 
American  residents,  the  foreign  immigrants,  and  the  ne 
groes  among  whom  they  live,  is  to  misunderstand  their 
history  and  their  aspirations. 

It  is  the  purpose  of  this  study  to  examine  the  attitude 
of  Russian  Jews  toward  education  as  it  is  indicated  in  the 
institutions  here,  and  to  ascertain  the  effect  which  these 
institutions  are  having  on  their  individual  and  social  de 
velopment. 

Probably  no  single  agency  has  a  more  far-reaching  edu 
cational  influence,  especially  in  molding  ideas  in  accord 
ance  with  the  standards  of  our  country  and  our  time,  than 
the  public  school.  It  gives  to  the  son  of  the  immigrant 
the  same  advantages  as  to  the  son  of  the  native  born,  and 
in  many  instances  the  transformation  to  similarity  with 
the  latter  is  swift  and  complete. 

One  of  the  most  striking  features  which  the  free  educa 
tional  development  of  the  country  has  helped  to  bring 
about  is  the  difference  in  habit  of  mind  between  parent 
and  child.  The  parents  are  usually  too  old,  too  set,  and 
too  depressed  by  economic  conditions  to  acquire  the  Eng 
lish  language  and  to  adapt  themselves  to  the  ways  of  the 
English-speaking  people.  But  they  give  their  children 
the  opportunity;  and  these  seize  it  with  great  eagerness 
and  determination. 

The  teachers  of  the  schools  in  the  lower  section  of  the 

200 


PHILADELPHIA  201 

city,  are,  as  a  rule,  so  far  as  I  have  been  able  to  gather, 
pleased,  on  the  whole,  with  the  Jewish  pupils.  They  are 
impressed  with  their  keenness  and  alertness,  and  regard 
them  as  better  material  than  other  pupils  of  foreign 
parentage  or  birth.  The  Jewish  pupils  come  to  school 
with  the  disadvantage  of  hearing  a  foreign  tongue  spoken 
in  their  homes.  This  disadvantage  once  overcome,  they 
are  abreast  of  the  best  American-born  pupils. 

I  visited  a  vacation  school  class  in  the  southern  section 
where  the  pupils  were  as  neat,  clean,  and  bright  as  could 
any  where  be  found.  There  was  no  appearance  of  "  slum- 
miness  ' '  such  as  the  up-town  resident  would  look  for.  The 
principal  of  the  school  explained  that  as  the  vacation 
school  was  regarded  as  privileged,  there  being  not  room 
enough  for  all  who  applied,  the  parents  took  particular 
pains  to  have  their  children  present  a  tidy  appearance. 
The  principal,  for  my  benefit,  asked  all  who  were  Jews  to 
raise  their  hands.  Up  went  the  hands  of  nearly  the  whole 
class  of  youngsters,  a  showing  which  alike  surprised  the 
principal,  the  teacher,  and  me.  In  the  other  classes  of  the 
vacation  school  the  attendance  of  Jewish  pupils  was  also 
large  and  their  general  appearance  attractive. 

Some  of  the  teachers  of  the  public  schools  take  a  strong 
personal  interest  in  the  pupils.  "Where  the  parents  seem 
short-sighted  they  endeavor  to  influence  them,  so  that  the 
children  shall  be  kept  at  school  with  regularity  and  shall 
not  be  taken  from  school  till  they  have  completed  the 
several  grades.  Where  they  observe  special  proficiency 
they  try  to  have  it  developed.  An  instance  of  this  is  the 
sending  of  pupils  to  the  Industrial  Art  School.  They  see 
much  latent  ability,  which  owing  to  the  rush  and  push 
of  our  hurried  life  cannot  be  developed;  and  its  possessors 
are  doomed  to  eke  out  a  humdrum  existence. 

In  one  of  the  poorest  localities  a  principal  informed  me 
that  the  instances  were  rare  in  which  the  pupils  of  her 
school  proceeded  to  the  higher  schools.  Economic  pres 
sure  apparently  compelled  the  parents  to  take  their  chil 
dren  from  the  schools  as  they  reached  the  higher  grades. 

With  the  betterment  of  economic  conditions  among  the 
Russian  Jewish  people,  there  has  been  a  steady  growth 
of  attendance  in  the  upper  grades,  the  higher  schools,  and 
the  professional  institutions.  Our  high  schools  and  col 
leges  are  enrolling  a  remarkably  large  number  of  Rus 
sian  Jewish  pupils,  who  show  a  high  standard  of  scholar- 


202 


EDUCATIONAL  INFLUENCES 


ship,  of  which  a  noteworthy  indication  in  the  past  few 
years  has  been  the  securing  of  prizes  and  honors. 

The  following  compilation  made  up  of  data  furnished 
by  the  principals  of  the  respective  schools  shows  the  total 
number  of  pupils  and  the  proportion  that  are  Jews,  in  the 
section  bounded  by  Locust  Street  on  the  north,  Moore 
Street  on  the  south,  the  Delaware  River  on  the  east,  and 
Nineteenth  Street  on  the  west, —  a  district  comprising  the 
greater  portion  of  the  Russian  Jewish  community  of  the 
city. 

The  result  shows  that  of  a  total  of  21,485  pupils  in  the 
public  schools  of  the  described  area,  measuring  about  two 
square  miles,  11,683,  or  54.4  per  cent,  are  Jews.1 


SCHOOL 

Locust  Street 
Horace  Binney 
Horace    Binney    Kindergarten 
J.    S.    Ramsey 
U.    S.    Grant 
Alice  Lippincott 
George  M.   Wharton 
George  M.   Wharton  Kinder 
garten 

James    Forten 

James    Forten   Kindergarten 
Ralston    (Boys) 
Ralston    (Girls) 
Kindergarten 
Kindergarten 
Wm.    M.    Meredith 
James    Campbell 
Fagen 

Mt.  Vernon 
Beck 

Beck    Kindergartens 
Florence 
Lyons 

Lyons  Kindergarten 
Fletcher 
Kindergarten 
Geo.  W.  Nebinger 
Washington 
Watson  Kindergarten 
Wharton 
John    Stockdale 
John   Stockdale  Kindergarten 
Weccacoe 
Henry    Clay 

Henry  Clay  Kindergarten 
John  P.  Baugh 
C.    S.   Close 
Tasker 
Morris 
Francis  Read 


12th  and  Locust  Sts. 
Spruce     below    6th    St. 
Spruce     below    6th    St. 
Pine    and    Marvin    Sts. 
17th    and    Pine    Sts. 
19th     below    Pine    St. 
3rd     below    Pine    St. 

307   Lombard   St. 

6th     above   Lombard   St. 

602    S.    Front    St. 

American  and  Bainbridge  Sts. 

American  and   Bainbridge  Sts. 

208    Bainbridge    St. 

705  S.  112th   St. 

5th    and    Fitzwater    Sts. 

8th  and  Fitzwater  Sts. 

12th  and    Fitzwater   Sts. 

Catharine     above    3rd    St. 

Catharine    above   6th  St. 

Catharine     above   6th    St. 

Catharine     below    8th    St. 

Catharine    above  10th   St. 

Catharine    above   10th   St. 

Christian    above   Front  St. 

924    S.    9th    St. 

6th  and   Carpenter   Sts. 

Carpenter    above  9th  St. 

League    below  2nd  St. 

6th   St.    below   Wash'ton  Av. 

13th  St.    below  Wash'ton  Av. 

13th    and    Alter    Sts. 

2nd    and    Reed    Sts. 

S.    Howard    above    Reed    St. 

S.   Howard  above  Reed  St. 

Dickinson     above   6th    St. 

7th  and  Dickinson   Sts. 

9th    and    Tasker    Sts. 

Morris     below    2nd   St. 

llth  and  Moore  Sts. 


PER 

NO.        CENT. 
TOTAL   JEWS    JEWS 

175    38  22 

700  75 

26  76 

4  1 

24  8 


935 
34 

408 
307 
500 


90     18 


1345     1210     90 


68 

66 

97 

633 

576 

91 

38 

30 

79 

}.  197 

171 

87 

3.  220 

198 

90 

69 

65 

94 

31 

18 

58 

1011 

950 

95 

1560 

782 

50 

585 

285 

49 

1200 

1070 

89 

301 

181 

60 

63 

30 

48 

650 

325 

50 

840 

350 

42 

41 

1 

2 

958 

755 

79 

120 

.  . 

p  . 

1158 

671 

58 

1338 

30 

2 

67 

54 

81 

1885 

1411 

74 

r.  258 

17 

6 

30 

3 

10 

603 

145 

24 

356 

122 

34 

70 

33 

47 

797 

329 

41 

940 

460 

49 

607 

200 

33 

526 

44 

8 

561 

179 

32 

21,485  11,683 


1  In  1899,  of  the  total  number  of  pupils,  17,000  in  round  figures,  in  practi 
cally  the  same  territory,  about  7,500,  or  45  per  cent,  were  Jews. 


PHILADELPHIA  203 

One  principal,  in  whose  school  nearly  one  half  of  the 
pupils  were  Jews,  said:  "  A  close  study  for  years  with 
these  children  enables  me  to  make  the  statements  from 
actual  knowledge.  Of  all  foreign  children,  the  Jews  are 
to  be  preferred  as  citizens  of  the  future."  The  response 
to  the  specific  queries  was  as  follows  on  the  part  of  this 
principal ;  the  questions  being  those  put  in  each  case  where 
inquiry  was  made: 

Q.  "  How  do  the  Jewish  pupils  compare  in  scholarship 
with  those  of  other  nationalities  I  >: 

A.  "  Very  much  above  all  others  in  behavior,  in  apti 
tude,  and  general  deportment  and  scholarship." 

Q.  "  Their  interest  in  American  institutions?  >: 

A.  "  Great  interest  in  anything  patriotic." 

Q.  "  Encouragement  of  parents  toward  education?  " 

A.  "  Most  liberally  encouraged  and  urged  to  become 
proficient. ' ' 

Another,  in  whose  school  a  large  majority  of  the  pupils 
were  Jews,  wrote:  "  Only  for  the  difficulty  in  learning 
English  they  would  compare  very  favorably  with  Ameri 
can  children." 

A  report  from  a  school  in  which  nine-tenths  were  Jews 
stated:  "  The  parents  attend  our  school  exhibits  in  large 
numbers. ' ' 

In  reference  to  a  school  in  which  half  were  Jews  the 
statement  was  made  that,  "  They  manifest  a  lively  inter 
est  in  American  history  and  institutions ;  that  the  encour 
agement  of  education  by  parents  is  '  active  '  and  that  they 
are,  with  remarkably  few  exceptions,  appreciative  of  ef 
fort  on  the  part  of  the  teacher." 

The  head  of  a  school  in  which  nearly  all  were  Jews 
wrote:  "As  a  rule  brighter  and  more  studious  than 
other  nationalities.  This  is  particularly  noticeable  when 
we  compare  them  with  the  Italians." 

The  comment  of  a  principal,  three-fourths  of  whose  pu 
pils  were  Jews,  was:  "  As  a  rule,  the  Jewish  children 
are  quick  at  figures.  They  are  attentive  to  school  work. 
So  many,  even  of  American  birth,  hear  a  foreign  tongue 
spoken  that  the  teaching  of  language  is  difficult." 

A  kindergartner  of  whose  pupils  all  but  three  were  Jews 
wrote:  "  I  have  always  considered  them  very  bright  and 
apt.  They  soon  overcome  the  difficulty  of  the  unknown 
tongue  and  make  themselves  understood." 

The  replies  were  almost  unanimous  in  agreeing  that  the 


204  EDUCATIONAL  INFLUENCES 

parents  encourage  education.  From  the  teachers'  stand 
point,  this  means  that  they  take  an  interest  in  the  school 
record,  attendance,  and  conduct  of  their  children. 

One  of  the  matters  of  complaint  is  the  failure  of  many 
parents  to  enforce  the  attendance  of  children  on  the  days 
preceding  holidays  and  the  Sabbath.  Evidently  they  are 
required  at  home  to  help  "  clean  up  "  previous  to  these 
special  days,  and  both  parents  and  children  do  not  seem 
to  realize  the  importance  of  conforming  to  the  school  rou 
tine  when  it  comes  into  conflict  with  some  of  the  set  habits 
of  the  home.  It  is  suggested  that  parents'  meetings  with 
the  teachers  would  remedy  this  as  well  as  some  other  mat 
ters  connected  with  school  discipline.  But  the  fact  that 
many  of  the  parents  do  not  understand  English  and  most 
of  the  teachers  know  only  that  language,  is  an  effectual  bar 
to  the  success  of  such  meetings. 

The  following  observation  of  a  principal  should  be  con 
sidered:  "  They  (the  parents)  encourage  the  boys,  but 
less  interest  is  shown  in  the  girls.  The  latter  leave  at  an 
earlier  age.n  This  is  quite  true  and  in  accordance  with 
ancient  orthodox  custom.  It  does  not  apply  to  Jews  who 
have  adopted  the  modern  occidental  point  of  view. 

The  children  show  a  decided  interest  in  American  in 
stitutions  so  far  as  the  teachers  have  been  able  to  observe. 
They  learn  the  patriotic  songs  and  study  the  history  and 
constitution  of  the  country  with  the  same  earnestness  as 
other  pupils,  and  have  a  general  desire  to  adapt  themselves 
to  the  prevalent  customs  and  habits.  The  rapidity  of 
adaptation  is  in  accordance  with  the  cosmopolitanism  of 
the  Jew. 

The  results,  on  the  whole,  seem  to  indicate  that  the 
Jewish  pupils  excel  the  other  pupils  with  whom  they  are 
associated  in  the  lower  section  of  the  city,  namely,  the 
negroes  and  those  of  foreign  extraction,  chiefly  Italians, 
and  that  they  are  fully  on  an  intellectual  plane  with 
those  of  American  extraction ;  that  the  parents  encourage 
education;  and  the  children  show  an  active  interest  in  the 
country,  and  consequently  possess  the  initial  elements  for 
becoming  intelligent,  law-abiding  oit.i/ons. 

In  one  school,  where  the  children  outside  of  the  Jewish, 
were  largely  of  American  parentage,  the  Jewish  pupils 
showed  fully  as  high  a  standard  of  scholarship  as  the  lat 
ter.  This  was  brought  out  by  an  examination  of  the  aver 
ages  of  boys  in  the  higher  grades. 


PHILADELPHIA  205 

The  rJames  Forten  Elementary  Manual  Training  School, 
on  Sixth  Street  above  Lombard,  was  at  one  time  largely  at 
tended  by  negroes.  Now  over  ninety  per  cent,  of  the 
pupils  are  Jews.1  There  is  a  large  negro  population  in 
the  neighborhood  of  this  school,  which  does  not  patronize 
it,  whereas  the  Jewish  population  has  taken  strong  ad 
vantage  of  it.  In  fact,  measured  by  the  test  of  their 
neighborhoods,  the  attendance  of  Jewish  pupils  at  schools 
is  exceptionally  large. 

There  is  a  large  attendance  of  Jewish  pupils  in  several 
of  the  night  schools  down-town.  At  the  William  M. 
Meredith,  Fifth  Street  above  Fitzwater,  fully  ninety  per 
cent,  of  the  average  attendance  is  of  Jews.  In  the  Mount 
Vernon,  Catharine  Street  above  Third,  the  percentage  is 
equally  large. 

It  is  not  my  purpose  to  discuss  the  efficiency  of  the 
public  night  schools,  in  this  connection,  though  a  careful 
investigation  would,  I  feel  confident,  reveal  much  to  criti 
cise.  It  is  certain,  however,  that  the  needs  and  demands 
of  the  foreign  speaking  populations  are  not  adequately 
considered,  when  the  fact  is  pointed  out  that  these  schools 
are  open  but  from  October  to  February,  three  evenings 
of  two  hours  each  to  the  week,  with  adjournment  during 
the  Christmas  holidays.  The  foreign  populations,  cer 
tainly  the  Jewish,  are  eager  to  learn,  and  the  educational 
authority  is  acting  against  their  best  interests  as  citizens, 
in  not  giving  them  a  more  adequate  system  of  education 
in  the  same  spirit  as  that  which  is  accorded  the  pupils  in 
the  day  schools.  It  is  because  the  requirements  of  the 
populations  are  not  sufficiently  considered  in  public  night 
school  instruction  that  supplemental  teaching  in  other  in 
stitutions  is  made  necessary.  In  the  district  there  are  a 
number  of  public  kindergartens  having  an  attendance  of 
Jewish  children  varying  from  two  to  ninety-seven  per  cent, 
of  the  total  number  of  pupils.  In  addition  there  are  a  few 
private  kindergartens  to  be  considered,  among  which  may 
be  mentioned  those  of  the  Young  Women's  Union,  the 

1  "  The  nationality  of  the  pupils  has  changed  in  the  last  two  years  in  a  re 
markable  degree  —  instead  of  a  majority  of  negroes,  there  is  now  a  preponder 
ance  of  Russian  Jews,  who  must  be  taught  English  before  they  can  enter  the 
regular  graded  classes.  And  this  adds  to  the  requirements  in  the  teachers. 
Even  in  the  class  now  under  the  care  of  the  school,  the  well  known  character 
istic  of  the  Jews,  that  of  a  carefully  guarded  family  life,  is  evide«tr,~So  that  the 
school  has  much  better  support  from  parents  than  heretofore,  and  considerable 
appreciation  of  the  benefits  the  children  receive."  Report  of  the  President  of 
the  Board  of  Education  (Samuel  B.  Huey)  for  the  year  ending  December 
31st,  1898. 


206  EDUCATIONAL  INFLUENCES 

Home  of  Delight,  and  the  College  Settlement  (433  Chris 
tian  Street),  in  which  nearly  all  the  pupils  are  Jewish.  In 
some  respects,  the  kindergarten  is  more  valuable  to  the 
child  of  foreign  origin  than  to  one  whose  parents  are  na 
tive,  for  correct  language,  in  accent  and  tone,  can  be 
taught,  so  that  it  will  not  have  the  disadvantage  of  some 
of  the  older  children,  whose  English  is  spoilt  at  home  in  a 
way  that  is  sometimes  difficult  to  correct  when  they  come 
to  school. 

It  has  been  shown  that  Russian  Jews  attend  the  James 
Forten  Elementary  Manual  Training  School  in  large  num 
bers.  Manual  training  is  regarded  as  especially  valuable 
for  children  who  live  in  the  densely  populated  districts 
and  are  thus  thrown  upon  the  streets.  And  it  is  of  par 
ticular  worth  for  the  Jewish  people.  The  teacher  of  the 
Sloyd  work  in  this  school  informed  me  that  the  Jewish 
pupils  show  full  average  proficiency,  and  he  has  not  the 
failures  in  drawing  to  report  which  were  reported  in  the 
regular  schools.  The  mind  and  the  hand  work  in  har 
mony,  and  the  result  is  not  only  good  finished  products, 
but  the  formation  of  a  finer  finished  product  in  the  pupil 
himself.1 

Among  the  Jewish  institutions  performing  an  important 
work  in  the  educational  development  of  the  immigrant 
population  is  the  Hebrew  Education  Society.  In  its 
building,  Touro  Hall,  at  Tenth  and  Carpenter  Streets, 
there  is  a  night  school  for  English  branches,  in  which 
hundreds  are  being  taught  our  language.  Such  a  school 
as  this  is  especially  valuable  to  the  newly  arriving  for 
eigners,  who,  with  their  utter  lack  of  knowledge  of  the 
language,  would  be  helpless  in  most  public  night  schools. 
Industrial  education  is  pursued  in  the  form  of  dressmaking, 
millinery,  garment  cutting,  cigar  making,  and  stenog 
raphy.  The  reading  room,  the  library,  and  the  audi 
torium  for  lectures  and  entertainments  are  valuable  ad 
juncts  in  the  work  of  this  institution.  The  auditorium, 
which  has  a  seating  capacity  for  fully  six  hundred  per 
sons,  is  used  by  other  organizations,  without  cost  to  them, 
for  literary  and  social  events.  Free  religious  exercises  on 
New  Year's  Day  and  the  Day  of  Atonement  are  held  here 
under  the  auspices  of  the  society. 

Also  located  in  this  building  is  the  Manual   Training 

1  See  Speirs,  The  James  Forten  School,  an  experiment  in  social  regeneration 
through  elementary  manual  training.  Civic  Club,  Philadelphia,  1901. 


PHILADELPHIA  207 

School  conducted  by  the  B'nai  B'rith  fraternity.  Boys 
from  eleven  to  sixteen  years  of  age  attend.  The  hours  are 
arranged  so  that  they  will  not  conflict  with  those  of  the 
public  schools.  Some  boys  who  have  attended  its  classes 
are  assisting  in  mechanical  trades.  The  work  of  this 
school,  though  small,  is  important  in  helping,  if  ever  so 
little,  to  turn  the  trend  of  development  in  the  direction 
of  manual  trades  and  diversity  of  occupation. 

One  of  the  large  schools  of  the  Hebrew  Sunday  School 
Society  holds  its  sessions  at  Touro  Hall,  the  others  in  the 
lower  section  of  the  city  being  located  in  rented  halls  at 
Eighth  and  South  and  Fourth  and  South  Streets.  The 
largest  attendance  in  the  three  schools  is  about  twenty-five 
hundred  altogether.  The  pupils  are  taught  chiefly  Bible 
history. 

The  Young  Women's  Union,  at  428  Bainbridge  Street, 
is  an  important  centre  of  influence.  It  is  developing  in 
its  personal  work.  Formerly  devoting  itself  to  the  day 
nursery  and  shelter  for  young  children  and  to  classes  con 
ducted  along  institutional  lines,  it  has  been  adding  the  club 
feature.  The  young  people  are  formed  into  small  groups, 
usually  with  a  leader,  whose  personal  contact  with  the  club 
is  valuable  in  molding  the  conduct  and  adapting  the  point 
of  view  of  the  individuals.  Then,  too,  the  Juvenile  Aid 
Association,  which  takes  charge  of  all  matters  pertaining 
to  the  delinquent  young  people  within  the  age  of  those 
subject  to  the  juvenile  court  law,  has  become  a  most  val 
uable  feature  of  the  Union's  work.  The  probation  officer 
who  is  given  charge  of  all  boys  and  girls  brought  up  in 
the  juvenile  court  is  an  appointee  of  this  association.  A 
part  of  the  work  of  the  association  which  promises  good 
results  is  the  placing  out  of  young  delinquents.  To  recur 
to  the  activities  of  the  Union  in  its  building,  besides  the 
clubs  and  the  classes,  the  gymnasium  and  the  library  are 
adjuncts  of  its  work. 

The  Home  of  Delight,  at  426  Pine  Street,  embraces  a 
kindergarten,  a  library  and  reading  room,  game  rooms, 
savings  bank,  classes  and  clubs.  The  class  work  includes 
sewing,  embroidery,  drawing  and  general  elementary  sub 
jects.  The  Home  serves  as  a  centre  of  social  activity  for 
the  people  in  the  northern  portion  of  our  southern  district. 
The  matron  lives  in  the  house  with  her  family. 

Among  the  influences  particularly  for  the  young  people 
none  has  been  more  important  in  my  judgment  than  the 


208  EDUCATIONAL  INFLUENCES 

Philadelphia  College  Settlement,  at  433  Christian  Street. 
The  beneficiaries  are  chiefly  Jews.  I  have  had  occasion 
carefully  to  study  and  observe  the  work  for  seven  years 
and  I  can  testify  to  the  valuable  results  which  are  accom 
plished —  not  results,  it  is  true,  that  can  in  any  adequate 
degree  be  put  down  in  tabulated  statistical  form,  but 
which  count  for  much  in  the  uplifting  of  the  individuals 
and  the  upbuilding  of  their  characters.  Not  only  is  the 
personal  contact  of  the  residents  and  their  associates  with 
those  who  come  to  the  settlement  promotive  of  refinement 
and  culture,  but  the  educational  value  of  the  class  and 
club  work  is  of  decided  benefit,  especially  in  broadening 
the  point  of  view.  The  games  and  dances,  the  concerts 
and  theatricals,  the  English  instruction  and  discussions  are 
effective  means  for  promoting  the  finer  development  of  the 
young  people  in  the  hands  of  the  Settlement  workers  who 
endeavor  to  bring  into  their  house  an  atmosphere  of  cheer 
and  good  breeding.  The  head  worker  of  the  Settlement, 
Miss  Anna  F.  Davies,  has  prepared  for  me  the  following 
appreciation :  "  My  experience  in  the  Philadelphia  Col 
lege  Settlement  has  led  me  to  believe  that  the  Russian 
Jewish  population  furnishes  the  element  of  our  congested 
districts  which  is  most  responsive  to  educational  effort. 
This  seems  true  of  the  wider  education  of  a  social  type, 
the  value  of  which  the  Settlement  especially  emphasizes, 
no  less  than  of  instruction  pure  and  simple.  Feeling  and 
taste  are  sensitive,  and  where  there  is  acquaintance  with 
good  standards,  will  usually  and  instinctively  choose  wise 
ly.  It  is  safe  to  assume  that  the  Jewish  applicant  for  club 
or  class  may  be  appealed  to  on  the  mental  side;  that  he 

.'  has  a  brain  and  will  enjoy  exercising  it.  To  the  teacher 
or  club  leader  who  has  the  tact  to  smooth  away  the  ob 
stacles  of  a  slightly  known  language  the  returns  in  interest 
and  appreciation  are  large  and  immediate.  Students  who 
cannot  be  trusted  with  the  spelling  of  English  monosylla 
bles  and  whose  composition  is  unintelligible  except  to  a 
kindly  intuition,  have  read  Emerson  and  Shakespeare, 
under  guidance,  with  keen  interest.  One  such  said  on  one 
occasion,  '  That  is  grand,  but  if  I'd  try  to  read  it  at 
home  I  couldn't  make  out  at  all.'  In. the  familiar  phrase 
the  Russian  Jew  needs  only  '  half  a  chance.'  That  given 
he  will  do  the  rest.  He  does  need  greatly  wider  eco 
nomic  opportunities  and  the  intercourse  with  the  more 

•    privileged  which  will  form,  unconsciously  to  himself,   a 


PHILADELPHIA  209 

finer  type  of  social  standards  than  his  Russian  past  has 
developed. ' ' 

Among  the  Russian  Jewish  people  themselves  the  Hebrew 
Literature  Society  has  developed.  It  has  a  house  of  its  ^ , 
own  at  310  Catharine  Street.  At  its  meetings  discussions 
on  religious,  scientific,  political,  and  social  subjects  are  held. 
The  lectures,  usually  on  Sunday  afternoons,  are  given  by 
well  qualified  men  from  the  universities  and  colleges,  and 
the  large  audience  which  is  attracted  is  thus  afforded  well 
digested  information.  There  are  also  on  other  occasions 
addresses  and  discussions  in  Yiddish  on  Friday  evenings. 
In  addition  to  participation  in  debate,  members  may  avail 
themselves  of  the  library,  which  contains  volumes  in  Eng 
lish,  Hebrew,  Yiddish,  Russian  and  German.  In  the  dis 
cussions  the  language  employed  is  sometimes  English,  some 
times  Yiddish.  The  society  promotes  the  social  life  by 
entertainments  and  dances.  A  gymnasium  is  contemplated 
and  with  it  there  is  likely  to  be  developed  physical  train 
ing,  both  for  the  older  and  the  younger  generation. 

The  Educational  Alliance,  located  at  516  Spruce  Street, 
is  so  called  because  it  is  the  result  of  an  amalgamation  of 
the  Educational  League  and  the  Hebrew  Students'  League. 
Its  chief  work,  which  was  organized  by  the  former  in  1903, 
is  free  instruction  to  the  immigrant  in  English,  elementary 
and  advanced  arithmetic,  algebra,  history,  and  literature. 
The  instruction  is  given  four  evenings  each  week,  and  the 
enrollment  is  over  200,  with  a  nightly  attendance  of  about 
100.  This  season  (1904-05)  a  paid  superintendent  has  been 
engaged.  The  main  result  of  the  direct  co-operation  of  the 
Students'  League  has  been  the  availability  of  its  members 
as  teachers,  the  Students'  League  having  given  up  its  own 
class  work.  It,  however,  retains  its  identity  for  social  pur 
poses  and  for  the  founding  of  a  scholarship  at  the  Uni 
versity  of  Pennsylvania.  Its  members  are  college  students 
and  graduates  and  higher  school  men. 

The  Young  Men's  Hebrew  Union  is  the  outgrowth  of  a 
number  of  small  literary  societies.  It  is  the  most  rep 
resentative  of  the  young  people's  societies  whose  members 
are  imbued  with  American  social  and  educational  ideas. 
The  character  of  its  work  can  best  be  judged  by  reference 
to  its  debates,  mock  trials,  lectures,  amateur  dramatic  per 
formances,  entertainments,  receptions  and  dances.  Its 
Women's  Auxiliary,  which  holds  separate  meetings,  helps 


210  EDUCATIONAL  INFLUENCES 

in  the  social  work  of  the  organization.  Its  rooms  are  at 
229  Pine  Street. 

Literary  societies  come  and  go  among  the  younger  peo 
ple.  The  names  change,  but  many  of  the  members  are  the 
same  in  a  list  of  societies  that  may  be  made  up  at  any  time. 
These  organizations  are  a  valuable  feature  in  the  self-edu- 
/cational  efforts  of  the  young  people,  and  though  they  tend 
'"•>  at  times  too  much  to  mere  dialectics,  this  is  by  no  means  a 
serious  result  compared  with  the  good  accomplished. 

We  have,  then,  some  large  societies,  besides  a  number 
of  smaller  ones,  promoting  the  intellectual  life  among  the 
/Russian  Jewish  people  themselves,  as  distinguished  from 
the  public  schools,  the  settlements,  and  the  educational  so 
cieties  organized  more  or  less  from  without. 

It  would  be  valuable  to  have  one  of  the  branches  of  the 
public  library  in  this  district.  There  may  not  be  a  neigh 
borhood  spirit  that  understands  how  to  call  for  it,  but  there 
is  no  question  in  my  mind  that  once  established  the  library 
would  be  most  largely  patronized. 

In  connection  with  the  subject  under  discussion  it  should 
be  noted  that  a  number  of  young  people  take  advantage 
of  the  low  tuition  fees  of  the  Drexel  Institute  and  Temple 
College  and  are  thus  materially  helped  in  their  efforts  to 
improve  their  education. 

No  reference  has  been  made  here  to  the  religious  educa- 
y  tion  of  the  young  people  because  that  has  been  amply 
treated  in  the  chapter  on  the  subject  of  religion. 

This  review  of  the  educational  influences  surrounding 
the  Russian  Jews  of  Philadelphia  should  be  convincing 
evidence  of  the  intellectual  desire  of  the  community  and 
the  intellectual  stimulus  which  it  is  receiving  —  a  desire 
and  a  stimulus  which  make  for  high  class  citizenship. 


(C)   CHICAGO 

Endeavoring  to  deal  more  directly  with  the  educational 
work  actually  done  for  the  Russian  Jewish  people  by  the 
public  schools,  the  various  settlements  and  private  insti 
tutions,  in  and  about  the  Ghetto,  we  shall,  at  the  same  time 
try  to  make  some  analysis  of  this  work  as  affected  by  Amer 
ican  Jewish  conditions. 

There  are  eight  public  schools  which  minister  chiefly  to 
the  ^jjigajj^fmT 'wantn  "f  t1™  f^r^^"*31^  pArTlp  Five 
of  these  are  situated  in  the  very  heart  of  the  Jewish  dis 
trict,  with  a  proportion  of  Jewish  children  as  high  as  93 
per  cent.  The  other  three  fairly  mark  the  northern,  west 
ern  and  southern  limits  of  the  West  Side,  and  have  a  pro 
portion  as  low  as  20  per  cent.  The  names  of  these  schools, 
together  with  the  total  number  of  pupils  and  proportion 
of  Jews  are,  according  to  statements  received  from  the 
principals,  as  follows: 

SCHOOL  TOTAL        JEWISH  PUPILS      PER  CENT. 

Washburne    1575  1465  93 

Garfield   1525  1400  92 

Smythe   1225  1078  88 

Foster  2075  1640  80 

Goodrich    1200  786  65 

Medill    (elementary)...  837  335  40 

Dore    1093  328  30 

Polk    1250  250  20 

Jewish  Training  School  650  647  99% 


Total  ..11430  7929  68.9 

Thus  we  find  that  in  a  total  of  11,430  pupils,  7,929,  or 
68.9  per  cent.,  are  Jewish. 

It  must  be  remembered  that  it  is  not  the  fortune  of  every 
one  of  these  eight  thousand  children  to  go  uninterruptedly 
through  all  eight  grades  provided  for  by  the  public  schools. 
Prof.  Bamberger,  of  the  Jewish  Training  School,  in  the 

211 


212  EDUCATIONAL  INFLUENCES 

Tenth  Annual  Report,  asserts  that  the  statistics  in  the 
school  reports  of  the  city  of  Chicago  show  that  not  over 
three  per  cent,  of  all  pupils  of  the  public  schools  are  grad 
uated,  i.  e.,  pass  through  all  eight  grades.  And  when  one 
comes  to  examine  any  group  of  schools  he  will  find  con 
siderable  confirmation  of  this  statement. 

Of  the  eight  schools  mentioned,  three,  Foster,  Polk,  and 
Washburne,  have  no  seventh  and  eighth  grades  at  all. 
That  there  is  a  falling  off  even  in  the  fifth  and  sixth  grades 
is  proved  by  the  small  number  of  pupils  in  the  seventh 
and  eighth  grades  in  those  schools  where  such  grades  are 
maintained.  The  following  are  figures  for  Goodrich, 
Smythe,  and  Garfield,  as  compiled  by  Miss  Witkowsky,  who 
investigated  the  subject  :* 

SEVENTH 
SCHOOL  TOTAL,  NO.  GRADE 

Goodrich 1165  110 

Smythe 1183  113 

Garfield  .  1328  145 


Total 3676  368 

This  table  shows  clearly  that  out  of  a  total  of  3,676,  368, 
or  ten  per  cent.,  reach  the  seventh  grade  and  only  186,  or 
about  five  per  cent.,  reach  the  eighth  grade. 
/  What  tends  to  aggravate  these  conditions,  and  further 
<  /to  injerfere_jdtlj^Jh^educational  career  _of__the_  Jew- 
V  ish_child_!sj  onthe~one~Tiancl,  fEe  apparentlyliaturai  tru- 
ahcy  oFsome  boys,  and  on  the  other,  the  necessity  —  always 
pressing  on  the  workingmen's  children  —  of  leaving  school 
V  and  going  to  work.  This  they  do  very  soon  after  they  reach 
the  age  of  fourteen,  thirteen,  or  even  twelve.  As  many 
of  them  begin  school  at  a  late  age,  probably  because  they 
have  come  to  this  country  within  but  a  few  years,  one  can 
judge  what  inadequate  education  these  future  workingmen 
take  with  them.  Some  of  the  principals  feel  this  keenly, 
deploring  the  early  removal  from  school,  especially  when  it 
affects  a  boy  who  has  already  attained  high  scholarship. 

These  are  some  of  the  undesirable  features  connected 
with  the  present  status  of  education  on  the  West  Side. 
However,  the  outlook  is  exceedingly  bright.  When  we 

1  Report    of    the    Seventh    Ward    District    Bureau    of    Charities,    1897-1899, 
Chicago. 


CHICAGO  213 

remember  that  there  are  already  eight  large,  fine  school 
buildings,  warm  and  comfortable,  equipped  with  books  and 
stationery,  libraries  and  gymnasiums,  ornamented  with  ap 
propriate  pictures;  when  we  remember  that  these  are  con 
trolled  by  large  faculties  of  teachers  and  earnest  principals, 
many  of  whom  have  as  their  deepest  interest  the  education 
and  development  of  our  children,  studying  and  counteract 
ing  their  drawbacks  in  English,  and  in  physical  health,  in 
which  many  of  them  are  so  deplorably  deficient,  then 
gloomy  thoughts  vanish.  When  we  remember  that  the^ 
ability  and  scholarship  of  this  army  of  eight  thousand 
children,  fostered  and  encouraged  in  these  schools,  might 
have  remained  dormant,  neglected  or  even  stifled  in  the 
land  they  came  from;  when  we  think  that  the  interest  and 
anxiety  of  the  parents  to  see  their  children  educated, — i 
which  is  certainly  satisfied  here  'to  a  large  degree; — we 
can  readily  realize  the  worth  and  success  of  the  effort 
made  to  educate  our  Jewish  young  people  on  the  West  Side,. 

Of  the  other  schools  in  the  city,  with  Jewish  pupils,  es 
pecially  of  those  on  the  Northwest  Side,  little  or  nothing 
can  be  said.  There  the  problem  of  dealing  with  the  Jewish 
children  as  such  does  not  at  all  arise,  so  completely  have 
they  become  an  integral  part  of  the  neighborhood  they  live 
in.  That  this  is  actually  the  case  is  clearly  corroborated 
by  the  reports  of  the  principals  of  six  Northwest  Side 
schools.  The  principal  of  the  Wells  School,  speaking  of 
the  scholarship  of  the  Jewish  children,  says:  "JIaye 
noticed  j^dififcrpripp;  1>ri  ?*<**•,  could  not,  pjp.k  or»t  fhtniW- 
ish  chTTSfen  from  the  others  in  appearance  or  scholarship." 
The  jmncipar^PfcKe^arr  School  says": ' '  Parents-mEerested  C2  V- 
in  schools  and  what  is  done  for  the  children,  but  no  more  '  *•< 
so  thm'-'Bea^JewislL-parinM7!  I3!lI^siii^yL^bLQW^  the  proc 
ess  of  ^Americanization  that  is  going  on,  and  an  investiga 
tion  of  /the  schools  in  other parts  Of  the city  woulcLprobably 
further  emphasize  the  same . Jact. 

Side"  by  side  with  the  public  school,  and  doing  an  educa-     *n  /s  ° 
tional  work  which  in  essence  is  even  more  valuable  to  the 
Jewish  children  than  the  regular  school  instruction,  is  the  / 
Jewish  Training  School.     This  school  was  founded  in  1888,  ^ 
in  recognition  of  two  great  principles:   First,  that  trading 
is  too  much  a  part  of  Jewish  life ;  that  it  is  becoming  detri 
mental  to  its  welfare  in  the  present  industrial  age;  that, 
therefore,    trades    must    supplement    trading.     Secondly, 
that  the  three  R's  are  too  much  a  part  of  school  life  and 


214  EDUCATIONAL  INFLUENCES 

the  three  H  's  —  the  perfect  union  of  heart,  head  and  hand 
—  not  enough.  As  a  result  of  these  two  basic  principles, 
there  stands  to-day  on  Judd  Street,  between  Jefferson  and 
Clinton,  a  fine  brick  building,  erected  by  the  private  effort 
of  wealthy  Jews  of  Chicago.  The  grades  of  instruction 
include  a  kindergarten,  primary  department,  and  grammar 
department.  The  manual  work  is  carried  on  in  two  divi 
sions,  the  art  and  the  mechanical.  The  art  division  com- 
.  /  prises  modeling  and  free  hand  drawing,  taught  in  all  the 
v  classes,  and  designing,  taught  in  the  grammar  classes  only. 
The  mechanical  division  comprises  Sloyd,  cardboard 
work,  wood  work,  machine  work,  sewing,  cutting,  fitting, 
and  draughting,  and  domestic  economy.  Particular  em 
phasis  is  laid  on  physical  development,  gymnastics  being 
taught  in  all  the  classes.  Music,  too,  is  taught  in  the  sev 
eral  grades.  It  is  testified  by  many  who  have  studied  its 
progress  and  results,  that,  from  the  pedagogic  standpoint, 
the  school  is  successful. 

Still  another  factor  subsidiary  to  the  public  school  and 
the  educationaLand  social  development  of  our 
is  thft 


!  Hull  House  takes  the  lead.  It  contains  50  chil 
dren,  of  whom  a  little  over  half  are  Jewish. 

The  kindergarten  in  the  Jewish  settlement  on  Maxwell 
Street  near  Halsted  has  also  done  its  share  of  good  work 
for  the  Jewish  child.  The  number  of  pupils  is  limited 
to  25. 

A  settlement  of  comparatively  recent  origin,  the  Henry 
Booth  House,  is  doing  almost  exclusively  kindergarten 
work,  and  that  mainly  among  our  Jewish  children.  It  is 
situated  at  125  West  Fourteenth  Place  and  is  under  the 
direction  of  the  Ethical  Culture  Society. 

The  institutions  so  far  described  are  undoubtedly  work 
ing  for  the  highest  good  that  is  in  the  child.  There  is  one 
other  institution  which  must  be  dealt  with  in  connection 
with  the  educational  work  done  for  children.  This  is  the 
Talmud  Torah,  or  Hebrew  Free  School.  It  occupies  a  large 
brick  building  only  a  dozen  houses  away  from  the  Jewish 
Training  School,  on  Judd  Street  near  Clinton.  The  outside 
of  this  building  is  really  attractive  and  in  great  contrast 
with  the  dilapidated  shanties  around  it.  This  structure, 
together  with  an  older  one  in  the  rear,  is  valued  at  $4,000. 
The  seating  capacity  is  barely  500.  About  600  pupils  at 
tend  the  school,  200  aged  from  4  to  6  years,  during  public 


CHICAGO  215 

school  hours,  and  the  other  older  children,  from  6  to  13 
years  of  age,  from  4  to  7.30  P.  M.  They  are  taught  the 
Hebrew  alphabet,  reading,  grammar,  translation  into  Yid 
dish  of  the  Pentateuch,  prophets  and  Hagiographa. 
Twelve  teachers  are  employed.  The  annual  income  is  about 
$15,000,  contributed  as  follows:  (1)  Five  cents  weekly 
dues  from  all  members;  (2)  ten  to  fifteen  cents  weekly  for 
tuition  unless  parents  are  unable  to  pay;  (3)  contributions 
from  congregations;  (4)  donations  on  various  occasions, 
such  as  weddings,  bar  mitzvahs,  b'rith  milahs  (ceremonies 
of  circumcision),  and  the  like. 

Subsidiary  to  the  Talmud  Torah,  are  the  chedarim,  or  pri 
vate  Hebrew  classes,  which  are  to  be  found  on  almost  every 
block  of  the  Ghetto.  The  hours  and  subjects  are  about  the 
same  as  at  the  Talmud  Torah ;  in  some  instances  more  mod 
ern  methods  are  employed,  in  others  more  mediaeval  or  an 
cient,  according  to  the  progressiveness  or  backwardness  of 
the  individual  teacher.  The  classes  are  invariably  conduct 
ed  in  the  houses  of  the  "  rabbis  "  and  usually  number 
from  20  to  40  pupils.  The  children  attend  until  they 
become  bar  mitzvah  (thirteen  years  of  age,  the  age  accord 
ing  to  the  orthodox  custom  for  admission  of  the  child  into 
the  faith). 

Instruction  is  also  given  privately  to  younger  children. 
A  host  of  "  rabbis  "  go  the  rounds  early  in  the  morning  in 
order  to  help  children  "  zu  sogen  broche  "  (offer  morning 
prayer). 

So  much  concerning  elementary  education.  Turning 
now  to  sftfinpdary  ajTdJhighftrgjiio.atioriJ  we  shall  find  the 
facts  far 'more  telling.  Jffi~tnall,  there  are  perhaps  1,000 
Jewish  boys  and  girls  in  the  different  secondary  and  high 
schools  of  the  city,  public  and  private. 

The  two  high  schools  of  the  West  Side  district  are  the 
Medill  and  the  English  High  and  Manual  Training  School. 
The  total  number  of  Jewish  pupils  in  the  Medill  is  about 
200,  or  one  third.  The  number  in  the  other  is  about  100, 
or  about '  10  per  cent.  This  difference  may  be  partly  due 
to  the  location  of  these  schools,  the  Medill  being  easily  ac 
cessible,  while  the  Manual  Training  is  far  removed  from 
the  district.  The  fact  that  the  former  is  of  the  regular 
type  of  American  schools,  offering  an  education  which  is 
essentially  intellectual  and  literary,  while  the  latter  offers 
an  education  that  involves  manual  training,  may  have  some 
thing  to  do  with  the  difference. 


216  EDUCATIONAL  INFLUENCES 

Aside  from  these  two  public  high  schools,  there  is  also 
a  private  institution,  for  secondary  or  academic  education, 
which  is  growing  in  popularity  among  the  young  men  on 
the  West  Side.  This  is  the  Lewis  Institute  of  Science,  Lit 
erature  and  Technology.  There  are  about  60  Jewish  pupils 
in  this  institute,  most  of  them  paying  $60  a  year  for  tuition. 
The  intellectual  work  of  some  is  particularly  notable.  Pro 
fessor  Carman  thinks  that  the  Jewish  pupils  represent  the 
extremes,  "  the  best  and  the  poorest."  The_sel£cted 
cou^ses-t)£-study  are_  mainly  jjterary ,  scientific  and  sociolog- 

~TQn  the  otheTTiand,  the  Ar- 


mour,- ar-thofeugh  going-institute  ^:  technology,  is  rather 
avoided-by--ottr-Riissiafi--d^wish  boys.  Here  again  the  ques 
tion  of  location  might  come  in,  but  certainly  cannot  be  the 
only  one.  As  against  those  in  the  constructive  sciences 
there  are  scores  of  young  men  in  the  medical  and  legal 
sciences. 

There  are  about  30  Russian  Jews  in  the  College  of 
Physicians  and  Surgeons,  and  30  in  the  Rush  Medical  Col 
lege.  In  the  less  prominent  medical  schools,  like  the  Ben- 
net  or  the  Harvey  (a  college  having  night  sessions),  many 
more  are  to  be  found.  In  the  John  Marshall  Law  School 
there  are  10  Russian  Jewish  young  men;  while  others  are 
scattered  among  the  different  law  schools  of  the  city.  The 
fact  that  the  number  of  Russian  Jewish  young  men  in  these 
schools  exceeds  that  in  'the  two  institutions  of  technology 
furnishes  further  material  for  future  analysis. 

More  indicative  of  educational  progress  is  the  fact  that 
many  of  our  Jewish  boys  on  the  West  Side  are  realizing 
that  there  is  a  University  of  Chicago  in  this  city,  and  that 
it  is  not  open  to  the  boys  on  Michigan  Avenue  exclusively. 
Those  in  the  department  of  literature  predominate.  It  is 
not  for  me  to  speak  of  their  success  in  the  different 
branches.  Several  are  here  on  scholarships,  and  they  pro 
ceed  with  their  studies  from  one  year  to  another  in  spite 
of  many  financial  difficulties. 

It  is  difficult  to  tell  how  many  West  Side  boys  would 
gladly  take  advantage  of  the  educational  opportunities 
offered  by  the  University  if  these  difficulties  were  over 
come.  There  is  many  a  young  man,  sitting  in  a  cold,  lamp- 
lit  bedroom  on  the  West  Side  over  a  book  on  physics,  study 
ing  perhaps  the  First  Three  Laws  of  Newton,  which  he 
would  like  to  re-establish  by  actual  experiment  in  the  labor 
atory,  but  is  denied  this  privilege  because  he  happens  to 


CHICAGO  217 

be  a  poor  workingman.     How  many  young  men-j&hose  edu- 

nnf  —  short  —  ia  —  Russia,    whose 


. 

identity  in  America  is  lost  amid  the  numberless  bundles  of 
shirts  or  knee-pants  in  the  factories  of  Chicago,  —  how  many 
of  these  would  joyfully  occupy  some  of  the  vacant  seats 
in  the  lecture  halls  in  the  university  if  the  tuition  fees,  and 
the  high  living  expense,  were  not  so  difficult  to  meet. 
Nevertheless,  while  the  money  question  is  serious  with  the 
majority,  for  the  few  opportunities  are  open  in  the  Uni 
versity,  as  well  as  in  the  Lewis  Institute.  The  road  may 
not  be  so  easy,  but  with  a  little  self  -sacrifice,  combined  with 
the  sympathy  and  help  of  others,  it  is  possible  for  these  to 
win  a  college  or  university  education. 

Hull  House  can  point  to  more  than  one  young  man  and 
woman  who  have  from  year  to  year  bettered  their  English, 
increased  their  knowledge  of  men  and  things,  and  im 
proved  their  taste,  receiving  all  in  a  natural,  free  and  truly 
glad-to-give  manner.  Nor  are  they  slow  in  taking  advan 
tage  here.  In  general  two-thirds  of  the  membership  of 
Hull  House  clubs  and  classes  are  Jewish  young  people. 
They  predominate  most  in  the  classes  in  English,  literature 
and  social  studies,  and  least  in  manual  training,  drawing 
and  art  studies.  In  fact,  the  English  classes  are  at  times 
composed  entirely  of  Jews.  The  art  classes  are  entirely 
non-  Jewish  in  membership.  Supplementing  the  work  of 
these  classes  are  the  clubs,  many  of  which  are  Jewish  in 
membership.  Their  interest  is  chiefly  in  debating,  in  the 
reading  and  discussion  of  literature,  in  dramatics  and 
musical  and  social  entertainments. 

Very  similar  to  these,  though  not  quite  so  extensive,  are 
the  various  clubs  and  classes  at  the  Jewish  settlement.  The 
personal  attention,  help  and  guidance  which  these  are  re 
ceiving  may  be  judged  from  the  fact  that  there  are  forty 
workers  connected  with  the  settlement,  ten  of  whom  are 
college-bred  men  and  women.  The  subjects  of  special  edu 
cational  value  which  are  offered  at  the  present  time  are: 
drawing,  debating,  handwork,  weaving,  clay-modeling,  vio 
lin,  reading,  and  piano  playing. 

As  has  been  mentioned,  the  Booth  House  lays  chief  em 
phasis  on  the  kindergarten,  which  is  much  needed  in  the 
Henry  Street  neighborhood.  There  are,  however,  two  dis 
tinctly  educational  clubs  besides  those  of  a  social  or  merry 
making  nature.  The  chief  interest  about  these  two  clubs 
is  that  they  are  composed  of  working  boys  and  girls  and 


218  EDUCATIONAL  INFLUENCES 

are  conducted  by  self-educated  young  men  who  have  been, 
and  in  all  probability  will  continue  to  be,  workingmen 
themselves,  who  come  directly  out  of  the  ranks  of  rising 
"  Young  Russia." 

Independent  of  the  settlement  or  any  other  institution, 
yet  widely  influential  in  their  respective  spheres,  are  three 
Jewish  educational  societies,  known  as  the  Self  Educational 
Club,  the  Lassalle  Political  and  Educational  Club,  and  the 
Hebrew  Literary  Association.  It  is  here  in  the  humble 
educational  work  of  these  clubs  of  coat  operators,  cloak 
operators  and  cigar  makers  that  one  gets  the  first  glimpse 
of  that  "  ever-glorious  revolt  of  toiling  humanity  "  against 
unrelieved  sameness,  and  daily  weary  monotone  of  present- 
day  factory  life,  "  against  being  shut  up  in  one  single 
chapter  of  life,"  as  Miss  Addams  says.  Yet  I  am  afraid 
that  the  people  who  ' '  go  slumming  ' '  seldom  discover  these 
more  essential  elements  and  nobler  manifestations  of  the 
Chicago  Ghetto.  How  many  know  of  the  existence  and  the 
great  needs  of  the  Club  House  (of  the  Self  Educational 
Club),  the  Labor  Lyceum  (of  the  Lassalle  Club)  and  the 
Reading  Room  (of  the  Hebrew  Literary  Association)  on  the 
West  Side? 

Standing  on  the  very  edge  of  the  educational  map  and 
perhaps  as  far  remote  from  each  other  socially  as  are  the 
north  and  south  poles,  are  the  numerous  lodges,  the  chev- 
ras,  classes  for  the  study  of  the  Talmud,  and  congrega 
tions  on  the  one  hand;  and  the  trade  unions,  the  political 
fl.TiH  -snpjajjgt.jp  flhifrs  on  thft  nt.hpr  "^hat^fehese  institutions 
do  ejijgLC^on^ly__an4l^^  the  uplifting  of  the 

masses  ?an  b^  s^ny—f^lt^  rmd  ppjrhffps  d^spribQd7  but  not 
\/  satisfactorily  dealt  with ;  nor  is  itpossiEIeTidlsEbw  by  means 
of  figures  the  educational  influence  of  a  similar  type  of 
social  forces  located,  figuratively  speaking,  just  mid-way 
between  the  synagogue  and  the  socialist  headquarters, 
namely,  the  Jewish  stage,  the  press,  and  the  professions  of 
medicine,  law,  and  the  like.  It  would  unquestionably  prove 
exceedingly  interesting  to  examine  the  effect,  for  example, 
of  the  more  thoroughly  educated  doctor  on  the  particular 
neighborhood  he  lives  in  on  the  health  and  culture  of  the 
families  he  comes  in  contact  with.  But  such  a  discussion 
is  out  of  my  domain. 

However  inadequate  the  treatment  may  have  been,  the 
facts  already  presented  are  sufficient  to  indicate  that  there 
is  in  the  limited  district  of  the  Chicago  Ghetto  a  host  of 


CHICAGO  219 

educational  forces,  emanating^roaL..  widely  different  quar 
ters,  but  blending  to  shape  and  mold"  anew  the  Jewish 
type_of  mind  to  suit  TiEeTnew  standards  and  conditions  and 
to  pTbduce  jchose  Tapid  changes jwhich  have  aroused  so  much 
interest  In  recent  studies~bf  the  East  Side  of  New  York 
and  the  Whitechapel  of  London. 

As  a  result  of  this  education  there  is  rising  out  of  the 
ranks  of  the  public  schools  a  class  of  young  men  and  women 
whose  like  is  almost  new  to  Jewish  life.  The  note  of  mer 
riment  in  the  young  American  Israelite,  foreign  as  it  is  to 
him,  from  the  historic  point  of  view,  is  certainly  full  of 
promise.  There  is  no  longer  in  him  —  especially  in  the 
better  educated  young  man  —  that  extreme  asceticism  and 
sour-facedness  which  mark  his  Hebrew  educated  prototype, 
the  yeshibah  bochur  (student  of  the  Talmud).  Tending  to 
overshadow  these  typical  characteristics  there  appear  grad 
ually  on  the  face  of  the  modern  young  man,  "  lines  and 
angles  of  smiles,"  indicative  of  a  more  agreeable,  if  not  so 
typical,  a  nature  as  that  of  the  yeshibah  bochur  of  Eussia. 
The  education  oj^J^j^heol  an4~the-cultu^^ 
ment  ten3~to'"make_Jhe  jJewish^^pung  man  more  of  a  social  *S/' 
being^lnore^y^16^  JuJlJa  iTkps  anfl  f1isTTFp^r"m^rQ  easily  *?/ 

sharing- -4heJ!ault&.  and  virtiie&jjf^German,  American,  and 
Irish^voungmen. 

In  tile  ireqiient  large  social  or  public  gatherings  on 
Friday  evening  in  Turner  Hall,  for  example,  where  boys 
and  girls  dance  away  until  four  o  'clock  next  morning,  there 
is  obviously  just  as  much  to  be  commended  as  there  is  to  be 
condemned.  The  JEaciLfliat-tho  Jewish  young  people  are 
outgrowing  their  self-centred  natures  and  are  learning  to 
meet  different  people  on  a  -social  plane  is  certainly  of  great 
significance.  On  the  other  hand,  when  this  social  tendency  \ 
is  carried  too  far,  when  the  hour  is  unusually  lengthened,  ^ 
the  sobriety  of  the  young  men  and  the  modesty  of  the  young 
women  must  inevitably  suffer. 

What  proportion  of  these  dancing  clubs  and  parties  con 
sists  of  public  and  high-school  graduates  is  difficult  to  tell. 
It  is  enough  to  say  that  they  take  a  large  share  of  interest 
in  organizing  and  maintaining  these  operatic,  dramatic  and 
pleasure  clubs,  as  they  are  so  frequently  called.  It  j^mains 
to  be  seen  how  soon_  they^win  organize  a  social  settlement, 
a  municipal  voting-league,  an  ethical  culture  society. 


HARVEST   TIME 

Jewish  Agricultural  Settlement,  Lij-nian  'County,  '/?:  Tf. 


JEWISH    WOMEN    AT    A    PICNIC 

Jewisk  Agricultural  Settlement,  Lyman  County,  S.  D. 


Cs 
,-3     o 


VII 

AMUSEMENTS  AND  SOCIAL, 
LIFE 


AMUSEMENTS  AND  SOCIAL  LIFE 

(A)   NEW  YORK 

Although  it  may  be  accounted  a  negligible  factor,  yet  the 
liquor  saloon  has  some  value  in  a  study  of  the  social  life 
and  amusements  of  the  Eussian  Jew  in  New  York  City 
(and  doubtless  in  the  other  large  Jewish  centres  in  the 
United   States).     Its  relation  to  the  topic  is  inverse;   in 
other  words  as  the  Jewish  population  ^f_a  jgiven— district 
increases  .the  number  'oF^~^^-fflTfe-J-J^decreases.     Contrary 
to  the  advent  of  butcher^sEopsTgrocery  stores,  and  "  coffee 
and  cake  parlors,"  the  disappearance  of  a  saloon  from  a 
street  corner  where  it  had  seemed  moored  for  all  time  to 
come,  and  where  it  had  been  located  for  a  period  beyond 
memory,  has  always,  on  the  East  Side,  and  latterly  in  the 
newer  Ghettos  of  New  York  City,  signaled  the  ousting  from 
that  district  of  its  former  denizens  and  their  supplanting  by 
a  population  between  which  and  the  saloon  there  is  no 
affinity.     Not  that  there  are  no  liquor  saloons  in  the  Ghet 
tos.     The-J^sjsian^e^TTS^^  he  has  no 
need  fpr..the_solicitous  guardianship  of  a  temperance  organ 
ization.     He  TlHnkr-TFhsB:  -he  feels  so  inclined,  or  when  it 
seems  to  him  the  occasion  warrants.     But  there  must  al 
ways  be  some  reason  for  his  drinking;  there  is  the  "  ge- 
fillte  "  fish  on  Sabbath  eve  and  for  Sabbath  lunch.     It  is 
almost  a  desecration  of  the  joy  of  the  Sabbath  not  to  have 
a  little  brandy  before  the  fish-course,  once  with  the  course, 
and  once  after.     Then  there  are  the  festal  occasions,  the 
"  Rejoicing  of  the  Law,"  the  anniversary  of  the  hanging  of 
Haman,  the  celebration  of  the  Maccabean  victories   and 
the  miracle  of  the  lights  —  surely,  these  are  sufficient  war 
rant  for  looking  upon  the  wine  when  it  is  red,  or  tasting 
of  strong  drink.     Then,  too,  the  great  family  events:  the 
b'rith  milah  (circumcision),  the  pidyon  ha  ben  (a  ceremony 
relating  to  the  first-born),  the  bar  mitzvah  (thirteenth  an 
niversary  of  a  male  child),  the  tnoyim  (engagement),  the 
wedding  —  surely  one  cannot  invite  friends  to  these  great 

222 


NEW  YOEK  223 

functions  without  previously  having  a  small  keg  of  beer 
brought  in ;  people  cannot  sit  at  a  dry  table ! 

But  the  drinking  that  is  done  on  any  of  these  occasions    \ 
is  done  in  the  house.     The  Russian  Jew  does  not  lean  on    j      X 
the  bar;  nor  does  he  sit  around  in  the  saloon.     If  he  likes    /  t/ 
a  glass  of  beer  with  his  meals,  he  can  have  a  bottled  supply  I 
on  hand. 

What  saloons  there  are  on  the  East  Side  do  but  an  iir£ 
poverished  business  and  are  dependent  to  a  large  extent 
upon  the  chance  passer-by  or  upon  the  steadily  waning 
"  kettle  "  trade.  The  brilliantly  illuminated,  lavishly 
decorated,  expensively  equipped  saloons  that  may  be  seen 
in  other  sections  of  the  city  are  unknown  on  the  East  Side. 
What  brilliant  illumination  there  is  on  the  East  Side,  what 
lavish  decoration,  what  rich  furnishing,  is  in  the  restaur 
ants,  the  latest  response  to  the  steadily  growing  social  in 
stinct  and  material  development  of  the  East  Side. 

Instead  of jthe  saloon  the  "  coif ee,, and  cake  parlor,"  and 
from  the  .".  coffee  and  cake- parlor, ".by  a  process  of  steady 
and  markeiL£i;oiutionr  the  restaurant,  with  its  nouveau  art 
decorations,  mission^ furniture,  table  d'hote,  and  string  or 
chestra!  Ten  years  ago  it  would  have  been  impossible  for 
even  one  of  these  restaurants,  the  acme  of  social  life  on  the 
East  Side,  to  have  paid  even  running  expenses ;  to-day  there 
are  a  half-dozen  taxed  to  their  utmost  capacity  daily  and 
nightly,  and  more  are  preparing  to  make  a  bid  for  the 
profitable  approval  of  the  East  Side  with  brighter  illumina 
tions,  gaudier  trimmings,  more  aesthetic  furnishings  than 
those  which  now  ride  on  the  golden  crest  of  popularity. 
Five  years  ago  the  proposed  establishment  of  a  "high 
class  "  restaurant  on  semi-philanthropic  lines  was  hailed 
with  the  joy  of  anticipated  gastronomic  delight  by  the  ap 
parently  limited  number  of  young  Russians  and  sons  of 
Russians  who  yearned  for  "  better  things."  Now,  the 
semi-philanthropic  venture  is  not  so  popular,  and  its  pat 
ronage  is  not  so  typical  of  the  elements  that  go  to  make  up 
the  East  Side  as  some  of  those  established  by  the  people 
themselves. 

But  though  these  high  class  restaurants  have  fitted  them 
selves  into  the  daily  life  of  the  East  Side,  they  have  not 
done  so  at  the  expense  of  the  humbler  resorts  of  which  they 
are  the  offspring.  After  all,  it  is  in  the  "  coffee  saloon  " 
—  where  many  times  more  tea  is  consumed  than  the  bever 
age  from  which  it  takes  its  name  —  that  the  East  Side 


224  AMUSEMENTS  AND  SOCIAL  LIFE 

finds  recreation.!  Whether  it  is  to  play  chess  or  checkers, 
or  to  discuss  KarOTarx  or  Bakounine,  or  to  analyze  Tolstoi 
or  Ibsen,  or  to  debate  the  relative  merits  and  demerits  of 
the  naturalistic  or  romantic  drama  —  or  the  wonderful  col- 
orature  of  the  last  night's  prima  donna  at  the  Metropolitan 
—  (for  all  of  these  are  included  in  the  light  converse  of  the 
East  Side),  or  to  denounce  the  critics  of  Adler,  the  actor, 
or  to  excoriate  the  traducers  of  Gordin,  the  playwright  — 
these  topics  are  handled  best,  thoughts  come  lucidly  and 
words  eloquently,  over  the  glass  of  tea  a  la  Russe  —  with 
a  floating  slice  of  lemon,  and  the  cigarette. 

It  is  estimated  that  there  are  between  250  and  300  of 
these  coffee  and  cake  establishments  on  the  lower  East  Side, 
which  figure  is  the  best  proof  of  the  popularity  of  these 
'  workingmen's  clubs."  Unlike  the  occasional  liquor  sa 
loon  on  the  Ea§t  Side,  they  are  absolutely  independent  of 
transient  trade,  j  The  chance  passer-by  does  not  enter  into 
the  calculationgHof  the  proprietor,  and  is  stared  at  as  an 
intruder  by  the  regular  habitues.  We  have  called  these 
places  " workingmen 's  clubs."  They  answer  that  descrip 
tion  more  truly  and  more  pleasantly  than  the  Bishop 's  tav 
ern,  for  here  there  is  an  absolute  guarantee  of  sobriety,  and 
a  free,  democratic  foregathering  of  kindred  spirits.  1  If 
one  is  up  in  the  coffee  and  cake  geography  of  the  district^ 
he  knows  where  he  may  find  the  social  and  intellectual  di 
version  most  to  his  liking.  It  is  each  to  his  own;  the 
Socialist  has  his  chosen  headquarters,  the  chess-crank  his, 
the  music-lovei  his,  and  so  on  right  down  the  line.  Some, 
indeed,  combine  two  or  three  cults  or  fads,  but  even  these 
have  a  tendenz  which  stands  out  clearly  after  the  first  clash 
of  impressions." 

Two  or  three  Ttf  these  "  clubs  "  have  considerable  life 
in  the   afternoon,   especially  those  in  which  the   radical 
literati  and   journalists,  the  compositors  on  the  Yiddish 
dailies,  and  students  and  insurance  agents  and  others  who 
have  a  few  hours  of  the  day  to  kill  congregate.     But,  for 
Lthe  most  of  them  there  is  no  life  until  late  in  the  evening. 
Pit  is  generally  ten  o'clock  before  the  social  phase  manifests 
Itself;  if  the  "  popular  price  "  performance  at  the  Metro 
politan  Opera  House  is  a  worthy  one,  or  if  there  is  some 
thing  worth  while  on  the  boards  in  the  Yiddish  theatre,  it 
may  even  be  later  before  the  roll-call  would  have  a  full 
response  in  certain  of  these  places.     The  resort  of  the  chess 
player  is  naturally  quiet  enough,  but  the  philosophers  and 


NEW  YOEK  225 

critics  are  oracular  and  demonstrative.  Often  it  is  "  mine 
host  "  who  leads  the  discussion,  or  sits  in  judgment  of  the 
pros  and  cons.  When  he  says  his  say,  it  is  boldly,  reckless 
ly  almost,  viewed  from  the  mercenary  aspect  of  retaining 
his  patronage.  Nor  does  he  fail  to  castigate  a  stubborn 
adherent  of  a  contrary  view.  But  the  heat  of  controversy 
never  assumes  a  petty,  sulking  character;  to  tear  "mine 
host's  "  arguments  to  tatters,  to  utterly  rout  him  at  every 
point,  is  no  mean  accomplishment  and  worth  hazarding 
many  defeats,  for  generally  he  is  very  well  informed  on  the 
topic  under  discussion.  In  fact,  it  is  his  known  views  and 
predilections  that  decide  the  character  of  his  patronage. 
Thus,  if  his  establishment  is  frequented  by  Socialists,  it  is 
fair  to  assume  that  he  belongs  to  that  political  school;  if 
his  clientele  is  made  up  largely  of  musicians,  he  is  an  ama 
teur  critic  or  patron  of  the  liberal  art-T 

And  where  the  cigarette  smoke  is  thickest  and  denuncia 
tion  of  the  present  forms  of  government  loudest,  there  you 
find  women !  One  wishes  he  could  write  these  women  down 
gently.  But  to  none  would  gentle  words  sound  more 
strange  than  to  the  women  of  the  radical  coffee  "  parlor," 
who  listen  to  strongest  language,  and  loudest  voices,  nor 
fail  to  make  themselves  heard  in  the  heat  of  the  discussion. 
Yet  it  is  hard  to  criticise  them.  The  hall-bedroom  is  such 
a  dingy,  dreary  place ;  the  walls  so  close  they  seem  to  crush 
the  unfortunate  whose  "home  "  is  within  its  oppressive 
limits.  The  "  coffee  saloon  "  is  light  and  cheerful;  the 
noise  is  only  the  swelling  chorus  of  spirits  with  whom  they 
are  in  harmonious  accord.  If  they  are  not  the  objects  of 
fine  courtesies  and  considerateness,  they  do  not  miss  them ; 
perhaps  they  never  knew  them.  The  stern  realities  of  life, 
the  terrible  disappointment  of  thwarted  ambition,  the  bruis 
ing  friction  of  tradition  and  ' '  emancipation, ' '  the  struggle 
for  existence, —  all  these  have  conspired  to  rob  them  of  the 
finer  attributes  of  womanhood.  These  are  the  stalwarts  of 
the  radical  movements,  the  Amazons,  or,  as  they  have  been 
dubbed,  "  die  kaempf erinen, "  whose  zealotry  rallies  the 
flagging  courage  of  their  "  genossen."  Unromantic,  per 
haps,  and  yet  we  hear  of  them  toiling,  slaving,  denying 
themselves  until  some  man  has  won  a  degree  and  an  entry 
into  one  of  the  professions.  But,  as  they  sit  there  in  an 
atmosphere  of  tea-steam  and  cigarette  smoke,  one  who  does 
not  know  sees  them  only  as  unwomanly  women;  pallid, 
tired,  thin-lipped,  flat-chested  and  angular,  wearing  men's 


226  AMUSEMENTS  AND  SOCIAL  LIFE 

hats  and  shoes,  without  a  hint  of  color  or  finery.  And  to 
them,  as  to  the  men,  the  time  of  night  means  nothing  until 
way  into  the  small  hours.  When  one  must  sleep  in  a  hall- 
bedroom  there  is  no  hurry  about  bedtime. 

Even  when  these  radical  resorts  have  reluctantly  surren 
dered  their  habitues,  night  life  in  the  Ghetto  is  not  at  an 
end.  There  are  still  some  resorts  that  are  aglow  with  light 
and  strident  with  color.  The  actor-folk  and  their  admir 
ers  and  satellites  are  still  awake,  talking  "  shop,"  posing, 
sneering,  joking,  romancing,  fawning,  and  flattering,  until 
the  gray  light  of  dawn  paling  the  glowing  incandescent  ad 
monishes  them  that  sunrise,  and  therefore  bedtime,  is  near 
at  hand.  The  great  "  star  "  or  the  distinguished  play 
wright  about  whose  table,  as  at  an  altar,  sat  the  worshipful, 
gives  the  signal;  the  lesser  lights,  down  to  the  chorister, 
know  the  meaning  of  that  prodigious  yawn  —  and  night  life 
in  the  Ghetto  is  at  an  end, —  that  is,  the  night  life  that  is 
not  lived  behind  the  tight-drawn  shades,  to  the  melody  of 
clicking  ivory  chips.  But  of  this  life  this  is  not  the  place 
to  speak. 

Thga.tr  ?-ff  ni  Tip1  is  so  much  a  habit  with  the  Russian  Jew 
in  New  York  City  that  at  the  moment  of  this  writing  three 
theatres  are  deriving  large  profits  from  catering  to  it. 
All  of  these  theatres,  with  seating  capacities  equal  to 
the  largest  patronized  by  the  non-Jewish  elements  of  the 
city's  population  (one  built  for  the  specific  purpose  of 
housing  a  Yiddish  stock  company)  are  located  within  five 
minutes '  walk  of  each  other  in  the  down-town  Ghetto.  An 
other,  in  the  newer,  but  rapidly  growing  and  more  prosper 
ous  Harlem  Ghetto,  has  failed.  There  were  five  Yiddish 
theatres  up  to  a  very  recent  date,  and  there  may  be  that 
number  again  shortly.  It  is  estimated  that  the  patrons  of 
the  Yiddish  theatres  number  from  five  thousand  to  seven 
thousand  a  night,  and  as  performances  are  given  on  each 
of  the  seven  nights  in  the  week,  with  two  matinees  (Satur 
day  and  Sunday)  the  importance  of  the  theatre  as  a  source 
of  amusement  in  the  Ghetto  may  be  realized. 

And  because  it  has  such  an  important  place  in  the  life 
of  the  Ghetto,  it  is  all  the  more  deplorable  that  the  Yiddish 
stage  is  not  a  better  institution  than  it  has  been  permitted 
to  become.  What  good  may  be  said  of  the  Yiddish  theatre 
is  not  owing  to  those  whose  first  duty  it  should  be  to  make  it 
possible  to  speak  well  of  it;  rather,  it  is  due  to  the  people 


NEW  YOBK  227 

themselves,  who  have  compelled  the  theatre-folk  to  show 
some  little  deference  to  popular  taste. 

The  players,  with  but  few  exceptions,  are  not  educated 
and  anything  but  artistic.  Their  mimetic  powers  are  high 
ly  developed,  undoubtedly,  but  most  of  them  lack  creative 
power.  Naturally,  they  are  at  their  best  in  photographic 
reproductions  or  in  caricaturing  types  and  characters  with 
which  their  lives  and  environments  have  familiarized  them. 
There  is  no  desire  here  to  deny  to  any  of  the  leading  men 
and  women  of  the  Yiddish  stage  the  credit  that  rightfully 
belongs  to  them.  Indeed,  it  is  perhaps  the  greatest  tribute 
that  can  be  paid  to  them  when  it  is  said  that  if  they  pos 
sessed  that  education  which  is  a  requisite  for  even  a  moder 
ate  success  on  the  American  stage,  they  would  by  now  have 
been  the  greatest  actors  in  the  world,  so  wonderful  are  their 
talents  within  their  mental  limitations. 

Still  another  factor  that  tends  to  prevent  the  stage  from 
rising  is  the  discouragement  of  authorship.  The  Yiddish 
playwrights  are  few,  because  some  of  them,  in  combination 
with  business  managers  and  players,  have  conspired  to  limit 
the  number.  About  eighteen  years  ago  a  Yiddish  company 
was  eking  out  a  precarious  existence  by  giving  performances 
of  the  Goldfaden  operettas  in  a  converted  "  concert-hall  ' 
which  had  been  renamed  the  "  Oriental  Theatre."  Pos 
sessing  more  business  than  literary  ability,  one  "  Profes 
sor  ' '  Hurwitz  gathered  about  himself  a  number  of  Yiddish 
players  who  had  drifted  here  from  Europe,  among  them 
Moguelesco  (perhaps  the  greatest  of  all  Yiddish  actors), 
Kessler,  Feinman,  and  others.  He  started  a  rival  theatre 
of  which  he  became  the  manager  and  author.  Except  the 
Goldfaden  plays,  which  were  used  as  "  stop-gaps,"  none 
but  the  emanations  of  his  pen,  in  the  main  clumsy  imita 
tions  of  the  wholesome  creations  of  the  ' '  father  of  the  Yid 
dish  stage,"  were  permitted  to  be  heard  in  the  playhouse 
of  which  he  contrived  to  gain  control.  How  many 
"  plays  "  he  wrote  no  one  can  say;  not  even  Hurwitz  him 
self.  Besides  "  historic  "  dramas  and  operas,  he  wrote 
* '  zeit-piesen  ' ;  — ' l  news  melodramas  ' '  they  might  be 
called.  Hardly  a  sensation  of  the  day,  such  as  the  Blood 
Accusation  of  Tisza  Eslar  (a  full  performance  of  which  re 
quired  eight  acts  rendered  in  two  evenings),  the  Dreyfus 
Case,  the  financial  panic  of  1892,  the  volcanic  eruption  on 
the  Island  of  Martinique,  went  undramatized  by  his  as- 
toundingly  prolific  pen.  Twenty-four  hours  was  sufficient 


228  AMUSEMENTS  AND  SOCIAL  LIFE 

time  for  him  to  conceive,  write  and  stage  a  play.  The  au 
thors  of  the  sensational  American  melodrama  are  rank 
amateurs  by  contrast  with  him. 

Another  prolific  playwright  is  Joseph  Lateiner.  Lately, 
however,  his  pen  products  have  been  few  and  far  between, 
and  for  the  most  part  unsuccessful.  His  plays,  like  those 
of  the  Goldfaden  type,  have  musical  settings.  They  differ 
from  the  Hurwitz  productions  in  that  they  have  sustained, 
coherent  plots,  which  though  as  artificial  as  most  stage  pro 
ductions,  are  yet  not  without  a  basis  of  verisimilitude  and 
logical  sequence  of  events  and  climax. 

It  is  worth  while  mentioning  here  that  Sigmund  Moguel- 
esco  is  responsible  for  most,  a,nd  also  for  the  best  music  of 
the  Yiddish  stage  (except  that  written  by  Goldfaden). 
Much  of  it  is  original,  some  of  it  borrowed  either  from  the 
compositions  of  the  great  chazanim  (cantors)  of  Russia,  or 
"  adapted  "  from  the  more  popular  Italian  operas.  But 
•even  these  adaptations  have  been  so  altered  in  rhythm  and 
tempo  as  to  become  almost  characteristically  "  Yiddish." 

To-day  Jacob  Gordin  is  the  dominant  figure  of  the  Yid 
dish  stage,  and  his  impress  is  the  strongest.  Some  others, 
among  them  Libin  and  Kobrin,  have  managed  to  get  a 
hearing,  and  not  without  success,  but  they  are  disciples  of 
Gordin,  and  at  times  have  ventured  farther  than  their 
master.  Gordin  has  excellent  literary  skill  and  powers 
and,  if  he  were  tolerant  of  criticism  and  amenable  to  dis 
cipline,  could  become  the  greatest  factor  in  the  development 
of  the  Yiddish  stage.  But  it  would  be  absurd  to  grant 
him  all  that  he  and  his  followers  claim  for  him.  Although 
he  has  written  many  plays  which  he  probably  regards  as 
greater,  his  ' '  Yiddish  King  Lear  ' '  must  stand  out  indica 
tive  of  his  great  possibilities  if  he  had  not  chosen  to  become 
a  philosopher  and  a  problem  play  writer.  What  gives 
Gordin  his  greatest  vogue,  and  what  tends  to  confuse  many 
of  his  zealotic  followers,  is  his  ability  to  write  strong 
scenes.  When  at  his  best  he  has  produced  living,  breath 
ing  entities,  in  contrast  to  the  artificial,  impossible  creat 
ures  produced  by  his  predecessors.  His  main  faults  are 
his  stubbornly  mistaken  conception  of  "  realism  "  and  his 
persistent  exposures  of  phases  of  life  which  are  better  left 
unrevealed.  The  concensus  of  opinion  is  that  "  God,  Man 
and  Devil  "  is  Gordin 's  master- work.  It  is  a  combination 
of  Job  and  Faust  and  its  lesson  is  that  even  the  most  saint 
like  man  may  be  tempted  and  fall.  It  has  been  witnessed 


NEW  YOEK  229 

and  approved  by  college  professors,  and  is  unquestiona 
bly  a  lasting  contribution  to  the  literature  of  the  drama. 

Besides  the  playwrights  already  discussed,  must  be  men 
tioned  Shaikewitch  (Schomer),  a  half-dozen  of  whose  plays 
have  won  popular  esteem;  Seiffert,  with  a  few  good  plays 
and  several  adaptations  to  his  credit;  Sharkansky,  whose 
specialty  is  the  dramatization  of  the  High  Festival  liturgy 
(the  names  of  two  of  his  plays,  "  Unsane  Tokef  "  and 
"  Kol  Nidre,"  will  serve  as  illustrations)  ;  and  Sigmund 
Feinman,  an  actor  with  a  fair  education,  who  has  been 
particularly  fortunate  in  adaptations.  Other  of  the  Yid 
dish  actors,  Kessler  and  Tomashefsky,  have  permitted  their 
names  to  appear  on  the  posters  as  co-authors,  but  their 
pretensions  have  been  met  with  knowing  smiles  —  there  are 
some  ' '  hack  ' '  writers  who  want  money,  not  fame. 

Jacob  P.  Adler,  the  nestor  of  the  Yiddish  stage,  has 
been  so  much  written  of  that  it  would  be  idle  to  say  any 
thing  at  length  about  him  here.  But  very  little  has  been 
written  about  David  Kessler,  who  is  the  equal  of  Adler, 
and  in  a  few  roles  his  superior. 

Of  the  women  of  the  Yiddish  stage,  it  needs  only  be  said 
that  Bertha  Kalisch  is  an  actress  of  such  rare  ability  that 
even  so  discriminating  a  critic  as  "  Alan  Dale  "  has  said 
of  her  that  she  is  as  good  as  Sarah  Bernhardt  at  Sarah's 
best,  but  never  as  bad  as  Sarah  at  Sarah's  worst.  The 
others,  with  the  possible  exception  of  Mme.  Dina  Feinman 
and  Mrs.  Sarah  Adler,  count  for  very  little  indeed. 

Unwittingly,  the  people  themselves  have  been  factors  in 
lowering  the  tone  of  the  Yiddish  stage  by  fostering  the 
pernicious  system  of  "  benefits."  At  one  time  or  another, 
lodges  and  societies  of  the  East  Side,  of  which  there  are  a 
countless  number,  will  "  buy  a  benefit  ";  that  is,  they  will 
pay  the  management  a  certain  sum  of  money,  a  little  over 
half  of  the  box-office  receipts  in  the  event  of  every  seat 
being  occupied;  for  this  sum  the  benefit  buyers  are  given 
tickets  representing  the  extreme  seating  capacity  and  stand 
ing  room  of  the  theatre.  A  play  is  selected  by  the  com 
mittee  representing  the  organization  to  be  presented  on  the 
night  of  the  benefit.  The  tickets  are  sold  by  the  members 
of  the  society  and  every  dollar  received  over  the  price  paid 
to  the  management  is  the  society's  profit.  This  is  no 
philanthropy  on  the  part  of  the  theatre  managers;  on  the 
contrary,  it  is  good  business.  The  theatres  may  be  reason 
ably  certain  of  "  crowded  houses  "  on  Friday,  Saturday 


230  AMUSEMENTS  AND  SOCIAL  LIFE 

and  Sunday  evenings  and  at  the  matinees  on  Saturday  and 
Sunday  afternoon,  but  the  other  nights  of  the  week  are  not 
very  lucrative.  "Without  these  "  benefits  "  the  theatres 
would  have  to  run  the  risk  of  financial  straits.  It  may 
readily  be  seen  how  these  "  benefits  "  could  become  a  pow 
erful  weapon  in  the  hands  of  the  people,  if  properly 
directed. 

It  is  on  the  "  benefit  "  nights  that  the  Yiddish  theatre 
is  best  worth  visiting,  provided  the  play  is  not  the  thing. 
The  audience  is  made  up  of  family  parties  and  neighbor- 
groups;  from  the  grandsire  to  the  infant  and  the  boarder 
the  whole  tenement  house  is  there  with  its  luncheons  and 
its  bedlam.  Half  of  the  audience  has  never  been  to  the 
theatre  before,  and  would  not  have  been  there  now,  only 
they  could  not  "  insult  "  by  not  buying  tickets,  or  because 
it  is  a  "  mitzvah  "  (good  deed)  to  contribute  to  the  good 
cause  for  which  this  "  benefit  "  is  given.  And  having 
earned  the  "  mitzvah  "  why  not  partake  of  the  earthly  joy 
in  its  train?  Here  and  there  is  the  "  veteran  "  theatre 
goer,  who  may  be  a  member  of  the  society,  or  also  could 
not  "  insult  "  by  refusing  to  buy  a  ticket,  or  also  wanted 
the  <l  mitzvah  "  and  all  that  goes  with  it.  The  veteran 
may  be  easily  discovered,  the  centre  of  a  group  of 
novitiates  explaining  the  play,  naming  the  actors,  criticis 
ing  them  audibly  if  they  are  lesser  lights,  telling  where  the 
laugh  will  come  in  and  repeating  lines  lost  in  the  noise.  Al 
together  they  are  joyous  occasions,  these  benefits.  Presents 
are  passed  over  the  footlights  to  the  ll stars,"  the  officers 
of  the  society  strut  out  before  the  curtain  between  acts  and 
make  "  sp itches,"  the  member  who  sold  the  greatest  num 
ber  of  tickets  has  a  gold-medal  pinned  on  his  palpitating 
bosom,  and  all  bathe  in  a  sea  of  ecstasy,  with  a  feeling  of 
good  deeds  well  done,  philanthropic  purposes  well  served  — • 
if  the  "  benefit  "  is  a  success. 

Although  the  Yiddish  drama  is  decadent,  there  is  no 
evidence  of  a  similar  degeneracy  among  the  people.  As  al 
ready  pointed  out,  the  value  of  plays  like  those  written  by 
G  or  din  and  his  disciples  is  due  entirely  to  "  strong  " 
scenes  and  powerful  acting.  Take  these  two  attractions 
away,  and  the  plays  must  fail,  as  many  of  them  have.  The 
social  tendency  of  the  people  is  constantly  upward.  Every 
sign-post  in  this  period  of  transition  points  higher  and 
higher.  Their  conceptions  of  life,  of  morals  and  ethics  are 
expanding.  Those  who  have  worked  among  them  for  a  con- 


NEW  10EK  231 

siderable  number  of  years  see  these  signs  clearly.  It  must 
be  borne  in  mind  that  the  population  of  the  so-called  Ghetto 
is  increasing  rapidly,  and  it  is  but  natural  that  under  the 
circumstances  there  should  be  added  to  it  such  individuals 
who  are  below  the  average  of  decency,  or  are  forced  down 

_Jn^  the  social  scale  by  inability  to^-cope  with  conditions. 
PTTundreds  of  influences  are  at  work  in  the  Ghetto  which 

"~  make  for  higher  ideas  and  chief  among  these  is  the  natural 
inclination,  or  rather  aspiration,  of  the  Jew  to  live  the 
higher,  better  life,  in  accordance  with  that  ethical  code 
which  has  been  his  guide  through  the  centuries. 

The  ladies  of  the  Ghetto  are  never  "  at  home/'  but  the 
welcome  visitor  is  always  sure  of  his  glass  of  tea,  his  dish 
of  preserves,  and  some  fruit.  There  are  no  ' '  Kaffee 
Klatches  ' '  here ;  nor  progressive  euchres,  or  bridge-whists. 
Hospitality  is  simple,  homely,  genuine.  There  are  no  so 
cial  circles,  "  social  life  "  as  that  term  is  understood  does 
not  exist.  "Parties"  are  given;  not  "coming  out" 
parties,  but  "  engagement  parties,"  "  graduation  parties," 
' '  bar-mitzvah  parties. ' '  The  wedding,  of  course,  is  the  big 
function.  Hundreds  of  societies  give  dances  and  "  recep 
tions  "  (the  latter  being  a  more  pretentious  name  for  the 
former)  during  the  winter,  to  which  anyone  may  come  if  he 
can  pay  the  price  of  a  ticket  and  "  hat  check."  Some  so 
cieties  couple  entertainments  with  these  receptions.  The 
great  social  events  are  the  ' t  entertainment  and  ball  ' '  of  the 
Beth  Israel  Hospital,  the  Hebrew  Sheltering  House  and 
Home  for  the  Aged,  the  Daughters  of  Jacob,  the  Young 
Men's  Benevolent  League,  and  the  New  Era  Club.  It  is  at 
these  functions  that  the  East  Side  makes  its  most  gorgeous 
sartorial  display,  and  it  is  by  no  means  either  a  crude  or 
cheap  display.  The  women  for  the  most  part  are  as  exqui 
sitely  clad  as  their  sisters  who  visit  the  Horse- Show,  and  the 
diamonds  worn  at  these  affairs  can  be  outblinked  only  by  the 
collection  on  the  grand  tier  at  the  Metropolitan  Opera 
House.  Strange  as  it  may  sound  to  many,  the  East  Side  is 
not  all  poverty  and  suffering. 

The  Harlem  contingent  has  acquired  some  "  society  " 
manners,  but  like  newly  acquired  things,  these  manners  do 
not  fit  very  snugly,  and  their  wearing  is  very  amusing. 
Perhaps,  with  much  effort  some  of  the  social  aspirants  will 
become  accustomed  to  the  new  burden,  ^e  "climbing  ' '  is 

wivWt>£  physicians  and 


lawyers  and  manufacturers.    The  great  mass  regards  it  all 


232  AMUSEMENTS  AND  SOCIAL  LIFE 

with  quiet  derision,  and  will  have  nothing  to  do  with  "  vis 
iting  lists  ' '  and  the  rest  of  what  they  call  * '  blowing  from 
themselves."  With  the  mass,  relatives  and  friends  are  to 
be  visited  when  time  allows,  or  when  occasion  demands. 

Owing  to  home-conditions  on  the  East  Side  there  is 
only  such  social  life  for  the  young  folks  as  is  made  pos 
sible  by  organization  membership,  and  as  may  express  itself 
in  the  dances  mentioned  above,  or  in  "  open-meetings,"  in 
dulged  in  by  the  "  literary  "  societies,  the  Zionist  societies, 
and  the  clubs  in  the  settlements.  In  the  summer  time  there 
are  the  picnics,  which  are  dances  in  an  open  pavilion,  with 
a  few  patches  of  grass  surrounding  it,  all  enclosed  with  a 
high  f  ence;^  Much  has  been  said  against  these  * '  picnics  ' ' 
and  it  must  be  admitted  that  many  of  them  are  not  very 
desirable.  There  is  great  need  for  healthy,  wholesome 
recreation,  for  expression  of  the  buoyancy  of  youth;  and 
it  is  greatly  to  be  regretted  that  the  facilities  for  the  things 
that  help  to  make  boys  and  girls  better,  purer  men  and 
women  are  so  very  few. 


PHILADELPHIA1 

Sharply  contrasted  with  the  middle  aged,  transplanted 
Russian  Jews  who  accept  even  their  pleasures  sadly  are  the 
young  immigrants,  pioneers  rather  than  refugees,  and  the 
native  born,  who  seize  eagerly  on  every  social  outlet  offered 
by  a  niggardly  environment.  Unworn  enthusiasms  hurry  > 
them  to  tawdry  American  amusements  while  their  fathers  I/ 
stand  steadfastly  by  their  old  world  observances.  For 
of  all  the  incoming  peoples  of  European  birth,  the  Russian 
Jew,  after  half  a  lifetime  under  religious  and  political 
ban,  adjusts  himself  least  easily  to  American  forms.  Flee 
ing  from  his  dread  birthplace,  where  home  and  synagogue 
trembled  in  every  political  breeze,  to  a  strange  unstudied 
land,  his  attention  is  held  by  the  one  great  and  splendid 
fact  that  home  and  synagogue  are  here  secure  as  long  as 
he  and  his  can  bear  their  share  of  the  burden  of  the  day. 
The  logical  centre  of  his  pleasures  as  well  as  his  pains  is, 
then,  chevra  (synagogue)  and  home.  Not  infrequently  a 
social  evening  is  opened  for  him  and  his  old  wigged  wife  by 
the  wedding  of  the  child  of  a  Ghetto  neighbor  who  was  also 
his  neighbor  in  a  little  Lithuanian  village  before  a  ukase 
depopulated  it.  And  the  funerals  of  friends,  who  through 
a  long  life  endured  many  things  in  both  the  old  world  and 
the  new,  take  him  with  increasing  frequency  from  his  books 
and  business. 

There  are,  also,  annual  charity  balls  to  which  his  ever 
ready   generosity  calls   him   and  leaves   him  stranded,   a 
quaint  anachronism,  an  oriental  patriarch  awkwardly  avoid-.,    / 
ing  the  rush  of  prize  waltzes  and  Smoky  Moke  two-steps.  I/ 
Finally,  he  is  a  member  of  charitable  lodges  and  beneficial 
associations,  which  hold  semi-social  dialectic  business  meet 
ings. 

But  jxL  amusement  puj^jjQd^simjlgaO^eeking  pleasure 
and  jollityorherowjn_5weftt  ^ake,  wBh^trtrd^_base  of  a 
pnTsfv^  the,  Russian_Jew  of  the  pass- 


1  The  data  for  this  paper  were  gathered  chiefly  in  1900  when  the  writer  was 
a  resident  of  the   Philadelphia   College   Settlement. 

233 


234  AMUSEMENTS  AND  SOCIAL  LIFE 

ing  gerieratioiLJiasnever  learned.  Body  and  mind  have 
hungered  and  thirste9^*fi^iac_£miditions  so  wearisome  that 
when  ease  comes  he  acquiesces  to  its  circumstantial  pleas 
ures  as  an  old  person  whose  senses  tire  and  dull,  acquiesces 
to  the  fall  of  the  cards  in  the  palling  game  of  life. 

Against  the  parti-colored  background  of  our  city  life 
he  is  a  somewhat  lonely  and  pathetic  figure,  in  a  free  land 
still  an  exile  by  inheritance,  unwilling  to  adopt  and  unable 
to  understand  new  ways  of  life  and  happiness,  and  in  the 
new  ways  the  conduct  of  his  own  children  most  bewilders 
and  alarms  him;  and  his  ignorance  of  English  befogs  his 
conjectures  as  to  the  meaning  of  their  Americanisms. 
Their  days  he  knows  are  long  days,  filled  sometimes  with 
the  easy  routine  of  school  and  oftener  with  hard  work  in 
tailor  shop,  department  store  or  factory, —  in  any  niche  of 
our  more  or  less  ramshackle  foundations  of  industry.  But 
their  nights  are  most  certainly  not  spent  as  his  are,  in  the 
study  of  the  Word,  or  even  by  the  quiet  light  of  the  home 
lamp. 

To  the  parents  this  is  anxiety;  to  those  who  work  for  a 
more  unified  national  life  through  the  acquaintance  of  all 
the  new  elements  of  population  with  established  manners 
j  and  customs  it  is  a  hopeful  sign.  They  find  a  richness  of 
I  promise  in  the  young  Eussian  Jewish  citizens,  who,  living 
under  the  severest  economic  pressure,  in  an  environment 
which  has  received  but  a  blurred  impress  from  art  and  cul 
ture,  have  yet  preserved  serene  good  temper  and  a  dauntless 
spirit.  Given  such  natures,  already  equipped  with  a  strong 
mentality,  the  lever  of  civic  machinery  by  which  the  mass 
may  raise  itself  to  a  higher  social  and  aesthetic  plane  is  not 
hard  to  find  or  difficult  to  operate. 

Some  civic  educators  express  the  opinion  that  the  uplift 
of  the  whole  can  be  accomplished  by  a  general  system  of  ex 
tensive,  organized,  and  endowed  amusements,  the  pro 
gramme  which  shall  produce  an  ultimate  art  and  cul 
ture  as  the  school  programme  endeavors  to  produce  them. 

In  the  old  world  ostracism  under  which  the  Jew  devel 
oped  circumscribed  his  pleasures  until  they  were  nearly  co 
incident,  one  may  say,  with  the  mental  and  moral  activities 
which  were  intensely  racial  and  aloof. 

What  opportunities  for  amusement  does  Philadelphia 
offer? 

They  are  bounded  by  easy  access  to  a  few  cheap  theatres, 
many  cheaper  dance  halls,  and  occasional  rooms  given  over 


PHILADELPHIA  235 

by  scattered  regenerative  agencies  to  higher  social  purposes. 
First  in  its  formative  influence  is  the  theatre,  after  which 
comes  that  distinct  class  of  pleasures  clustering  about  the 
desolate  dance  hall :  the  Pleasure  Social,  the  Hall  Wedding, 
the  Dancing  Class,  the  Ball  or  Masquerade  Dance  for  Char 
ity,  and  the  Literary  Concert  and  Ball  of  the  political  and 
industrial  bodies.  About  the  last  group  are  found  debating, 
literary,  and  dramatic  societies,  dancing  and  social  clubs, 
and  Sunday  school  and  philanthropic  entertainments  con 
ducted  by  Jews  of  an  up-town  district. 

There  were  three  play  houses  patronized  by  Russian 
Jews,  and  by  comparing  the  policies  of  these  houses  with 
those  of  neighboring  theatres  not  frequented  by  the  Jews 
it  is  easy  to  determine  the  quality  which  attracts  the  Ghetto 
population.  The  least  successful  of  the  three  was  the  the 
atre  on  Arch  Street,  which  was  conducted  as  a  Yiddish  play 
house  for  a  while,  and  the  reason  for  this  anomaly  is 
due  in  part  to  its  "  old  fashioned  "  plays  and  to  the  fact 
that  the  language  used  was  Judeo-German,  a  jargon  which 
the  young  people  not  only  do  not  wish  to  remember  but  pre 
tend  they  do  not  know.  Many  young  men  and  women, 
whose  weekly  evenings  at  the  theatre  is  as  regular  a  func 
tion  as  their  wage  payments,  expressed  surprise  and  amuse 
ment  when  told  that  systematic  visits  had  been  paid  to  the 
Arch  Street  Theatre.1  They  thought  it  all  right  for  the 
"  green-horn,"  but  probably  a  mistake  in  judgment  on  the 
part  of  those  of  us  sufficiently  acclimated  to  "  know  the 
ropes."  "  That?  Why  ain't  it  a  rank  play?  Something 
about  Siberia,  ain't  it?  Now,  you  ought  to  see  '  The  Elec 
trician.'  There's  a  great  coon  song  in  it;  it  goes  this  way 
If  the  older  Jews  were  threatre-going 
and  amusement-seeking  people,  a  house  so  centrally  located, 
offering  plays  based  on  the  most  vivid  realities  of  racial  and 
religious  life,  would  do  a  thriving  business. 

The  ' '  Standard^ ' '  centrally  located  at  Twelfth  and  South 
Streets,  the  business  section  of  the  Ghetto,  presents  a  weekly 
bill  with  afternoon  and  evening  performances.  A  stock 
company  has  occupied  it  for  several  years,  and  its  members 
are  neighborhood  exemplars  and  household  names.  The 
personal  and  stage  morals  of  each  player  are  weighed  and 
pronounced  upon,  from  the  virtues  of  the  leading  woman 
to  the  dramatic  atrocities  of  the  villain,  whose  private  ca- 

1  The  Academy  of  Music  is  now  used  occasionally  for  a  Yiddish  perform 
ance.  There  is  also  an  up-town  Yiddish  theatre  of  a  lower  grade. 


236  AMUSEMENTS  AND  SOCIAL  LIFE 

reer  supposedly  made  a  girl  of  fifteen  remark :  ' l  Not  one 
of  our  crowd  would  be  found  dead  walking  the  street  with 
him. ' '  It  is,  however,  the  custom  of  her  coterie  to  follow  him 
on  the  other  side,  drawn  by  the  attraction  of  a  bad  name. 

On  the  whole,  the  stock  company  does  better  work  than 
might  be  expected  from  its  weekly  change  of  bill  and  its 
double  daily  performance.  Old  popular  plays  of  five  acts, 
supplemented  by  long  entre-acte  vaudeville  turns,  often  ex 
tend  the  matinee  from  two  until  six  o'clock.  "  The  Two 
Orphans,"  "  The  Three  Musketeers  "  and  the  greatest 
"  charmer  "  of  them  all,  "  The  Black  Flag,"  are  given 
yearly  to  large  audiences  which  can  anticipate  the  details 
of  every  act.  More  recently,  melodramas  of  American  life, 
"  Hero,  the  Warm  Spring  Indian  Chief,"  "  M'liss,"  "  The 
Span  of  Life,"  and  "  The  Fire  Patrol,"  have  been  added 
to  the  repertoire  and  may  be  depended  upon  to  furnish  an 
appalling  amount  of  misinformation  concerning  the  man 
ners  and  the  customs  of  our  country.  But  this  failure  to 
picture  national  characteristics  is  thrust  into  the  back 
ground  when  the  cunning  of  the  playwright  stirs  the  crowd 
to  accurate  and  vehement  reactions  on  all  moral  issues. 

Ask  the  cynic  and  the  doubter  of  his  kind,  he  who  has 
been  saddened  by  the  photographs  of  the  seamy  side  of  life 
shown  by  our  first-rate  theatres,  to  come  to  this  theatre  and 
buy  a  ten-cent  seat  beside  the  gallery  loafers  and  unskilled 
working-boys.  He  will  look  down  upon  the  floor  crowded 
with  young  men  and  women,  trouping  in  from  nearby 
shops,  markets  and  factories;  clerks,  and  garment- workers 
of  the  upper  class  of  industry, —  who  can  pay  thirty  cents 
for  an  orchestra  seat,  and  an  additional  dime  for  the  wares 
of  refreshment  vendors.  He  will  note  that  the  majority  of 
the  audience  are  Judeo-Americans  of  the  first  generation, 
and  that  they  jump  to  their  feet,  not  like  the  sons  of  their 
fathers,  but  with  a  native  nervous  thrill  when  virtue  is  for 
the  moment  overborne  by  vice  or  when  real  flames  envelop 
the  heroine.  If  the  hero  demands  the  whereabouts  of  the 
concealed  heroine  some  self -forgetful  person  in  the  audience 
tells  him.  Applause,  hisses,  groans,  advice,  are  heaped  upon 
the  stage  folk.  Given  this  hearty  interest  in  simple  old 
tales  of  love  and  hate,  it  is  not  necessary  to  touch  the  coarse 
or  the  immoral.  Only  once  during  the  period  of  personal 
attendance  did  a  performer  do  a  turn  based  on  dubious 
anecdotes,  and  his  was  the  only  act  that  day  that  did  not 
receive  hearty  applause.  The  vaudeville  is  often  horse-play 


PHILADELPHIA  237 

and  the  songs  are  rank  bathos  and  silliness  murdered  by 
ruined  voices;  the  stage  settings  are  drearily  inadequate 
and  the  mechanisms  creak ;  yet  here  an  average  number  of 
eighteen  hundred  people  daily  run  the  gamut  of  human 
emotions  and  are  molded  by  the  deportment  of  the  players. 

We  are  proud  of  the  marked  compliment  paid  us  by  the 
management,  whose  playhouse  in  another  part  of  the  city 
is  wholly  vicious,  in  thus  recognizing  the  sound  morale  in 
our  district. 

The  "  National  "  attracts  a  different  patronage.  It  is 
ten  squares  north  of  the  Standard,  at  Callowhill  and  Tenth 
Streets  and  outside  of  the  geographical  bounds  occupied  by 
the  Russian  Jews.  Prices  of  admission  range  from  75  to 
15  cents,  and  the  plays  are  given  by  second  rate  and  third 
rate  road  companies.  Scenery  and  property  are  richer 
than  they  are  at  the  Standard,  and  the  place  is  sensational 
but  not  spectacular.  There  is  little  glare,  glitter,  or  fan 
fare,  but  an  abundance  of  the  heavily  tragic  relieved  by 
series  of  the  lightly  comic.  ' l  The  Man  of  Mystery  ' '  and 
"  The  Great  Train  Robbery  "  enjoyed  long  runs  this  sea 
son,  and  the  "  Acrobatic  Farce  "of"  Eight  Bells/'  with 
its  tumbling  fooleries,  crowded  the  house  to  suffocation. 
A  large  share  of  its  patronage  is  drawn  from  the  down 
town  shop-keepers  whose  social  aspirations  point  north 
ward,  warning  them  not  to  mingle  with  the  democratic 
throngs  at  the  Standard;  from  grammar  and  high  school 
pupils;  from  the  higher  ranks  of  labor  —  the  men  who 
belong  to  unions  and  read  the  literature  of  their  craft ; 
and  from  the  over-running  swarms  of  boys  who  know 
every  coign  of  fun  from  Kensington  to  Point  Breeze. 
Traditions  of  intellectuality  propelling  this  mass  were  re 
vealed  when  the  Jewish  play  "  Zorah  "  was  given  here. 
By  the  low  murmurs  of  sympathy  and  applause  which 
greeted  incidents  of  Russian  autocracy,  of  hasty  flight,  of 
stern  execution,  persecution  of  the  Jewish  professional 
class,  religious  meekness  and  filial  devotion,  one  knew  that 
many  of  the  audience  criticised  the  verities  at  first  hand. 
Threats  of  Siberian  torture  had  sounded  before,  under 
different  circumstances,  in  the  ears  of  university-bred  and 
professionally  trained  fathers  of  these  auditors.  It  is  an 
oversight  on  the  part  of  our  society  that  mental  pabulum 
is  not  offered  instead  of  the  froth  with  which  this  strong 
body  is  fain  to  satisfy  itself. 

The  Pleasure  Social  and  its  causes  measure  the  lack  of 


238  AMUSEMENTS  AND  SOCIAL  LIFE 

any  adequate  outlet  for  hospitable  impulse  and  a  gracious 
well-mannered  expression  of  it.  The  Jew  is  instinctively 
hospitable  and  the  quality  enters  into  and  complicates  his 
confused  attempt  to  solve  the  social  problem  of  his  life. 
He  greatly  desires  to  be  entertained,  to  entertain,  and  to 
adjust  to  his  persistent  money  stringency  the  degree  of 
excitation  made  necessary  by  his  early  indulgence  in  highly 
spiced  amusements. 

His  own  home  cannot  meet  his  requirements  in  this  di 
rection.  The  rooms  are  seldom  large  enough  to  accommo 
date  a  number  of  his  friends  and  the  custom  of  inviting 
one  or  two  of  them  to  dine  with  him  is  almost  unknown. 
Indeed,  the  formal  sitting  down  to  food  is  not  usual  enough 
to  make  a  social  function  of  the  act.  There  is  in  general 
but  one  small,  poorly  lighted  room,  common  in  the  evening 
to  the  old  people  and  the  children,  so  that  the  sense  of 
something  different  and  brighter  and  dressed  up  is  alto 
gether  missing.  From  these  conditions  has  developed  the 
Pleasure  Social,  which  after  Hall  Weddings  is  the  most  fre 
quent  form  of  social  intercourse. 

There  are  three  distinct  kinds  of  social.  The  first,  as 
the  name  implies,  is  a  friendly  group  of  a  dozen  or  more 
young  men  combined  for  pleasure  with  the  sub-motive  of 
pecuniary  profit;  the  second  is  a  business  association  of 
three  or  more  men  giving  dances  under  club  names  for 
profit  alone ;  and  lastly  the  ' '  chartered  social, ' '  a  gambling 
concern  masquerading  as  "  The  Early  Rose/'  "  The  Jolly 
Fifteen,"  "  The  Jolly  Bunch,"  or  the  "  Ad  Libitum."  In 
order  to  rent  a  room  where  cards  may  be  played  regularly 
and  without  interruption  it  is  necessary  to  hold  a  charter, 
and,  by  suggestion,  clubs  taking  a  charter  may  not  be  in 
good  repute.  Therefore,  pleasure-seeking  young  people 
hesitate  to  do  so  even  though  it  would  be  a  step  toward  a 
more  permanent  organization  than  they  usually  succeed  in 
maintaining  without  an  assured  meeting  place.  The  lead 
ing  spirits  weigh  the  prospects,  drop  in  to  talk  it  over  with 
the  girls,  canvass  it  with  members  of  last  winter's  de 
funct  clubs,  and  at  length  choose  a  name  and  elect  officers. 
After  a  few  weeks,  if  wages  are  good,  they  may  hire  a 
small,  cheap,  dirty  hall.  Each  member  invites  a  "  lady 
friend, ' '  and  they  give  a  tentative  private  t '  spiel. ' '  How 
ever  successful  it  may  be  it  does  not  establish  the  Social. 
For  if  it  rests  its  claim  to  recognition  at  this  point,  scoffers 
will  say  of  it,  * '  Them  ?  nothin '  but  cheap  lovers ! "  So  an 


PHILADELPHIA  239 

elaborate  affair  is  projected  by  generalship  and  daring,  at 
a  date  when  the  market  does  not  seem  to  be  overcrowded 
with  big  public  balls.  It  is  called  to  the  attention  of  pleas 
ure  seekers  by  window  placards,  reading  like  this: 

ROUDIOS    SOCIAL 

December  2nd 

Kilgallon,  America's  White  Champion  CAKE  WALKER 

Last  Chance  to  see  him  prior  to  him  going  to  NEW  YORK 

PRIZE  WALTZ  for  up-towners  and  down-towners 

GREAT      SPORT 
Ad.  15  cents.  Pennsylvania  Hall 

Sometimes  a  swell  Social,  a  very  aristocrat  distinguished 
among  its  fellows  because  it  is  three  or  four  years  old,  pays 
its  heaviest  expenses  by  the  advertisements  on  its  dance 
programmes.  When  the  financial  strain  is  thus  relieved  be 
fore  the  day  arrives  the  occasion  is  a  gala  one,  and  the 
promoters  exercise  a  simpler  hospitality  than  is  possible 
when  it  is  necessary  that  strangers  buy  beer  to  pay  for  the 
orchestra.  The  larger  halls,  Pennsylvania  or  Washington, 
may  be  rented  for  $25.00 ;  the  orchestra  hired  for  $12.00  or 
$15.00 ;  and  the  bar  stocked  with  multiple  kegs  of  beer  and 
Dottles  of  soda,  whiskey,  wine,  according  to  taste.  To  these 
expenses  add  the  printing  of  window  placards  and  a  large 
number  of  tickets,  prizes  for  cake  walk  and  waltz,  and  it  is 
evident  that  the  expenditure  is  large  and  that  possible  loss 
may  be  heavy. 

The  assertion  upon  the  tickets  that  admission  will  be 
fifteen  cents  is  usually  no  more  than  current  fiction,  for 
the  cards  are  distributed  as  advertisements,  the  profits 
being  reckoned  by  the  ward-robe  fee  levied  upon  all  comers, 
and  by  the  returns  from  the  bar.  A  movement  toward 
higher  prices  is  noted.  It  is  possibly  a  desire  to  raise  a 
barrier  against  the  chance  entrance  of  any  passer-by.  At 
any  rate  the  members  now  give  complimentary  tickets  in 
numbers  to  their  acquaintances,  whereas  the  total  stranger 
is  confronted  with  the  admission  fee  of  fifteen  cents  plus 
ten  cents  "  ward-robe." 

If  this  process  of  selection  is  more  than  a  season's  fash 
ion  it  will  in  a  measure  arrest  the  worst  tendency  of  the 
Social  —  the  unchecked  publicity  which  kills  the  sense  of 


240  AMUSEMENTS  AND  SOCIAL  LIFE 

personal  responsibility  in  living  up  to  any  denned  stand' 
ards  of  behavior.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the  Social's  ball 
advances  on  its  present  lines  a  few  years  longer,  the  condi 
tions  it  is  creating  by  its  entire  lack  of  supervision  by  ma 
ture  and  steady  people,  its  indiscriminate  contact  with 
some  vicious  phases  of  our  city  life  and  —  if  the  adjective 
is  not  too  far  fetched  —  by  a  touch  of  the  French  in  masque 
dancing,  all  these  will  set  a  problem  before  the  Jews  which 
in  the  guarded  Russian  days  they  have  been  blessed  in 
escaping. 

In  illustration  of  the  occasional  use  of  this  freedom  sud 
denly  thrust  upon  young  people  strictly  reared  by  parents 
and  rabbis,  one  incident  may  serve.  At  a  much  heralded 
Fifth  Annual  Ball  given  by  a  Social  whose  boast  it  is  that 
it  has  always  barred  the  "  hoboes  "  from  its  functions  by 
high  admission  prices  and  that  it  never  admits  a  "  lob 
ster  "  to  membership,  the  president,  a  nineteen-year-old 
cutter  in  a  fashionable  tailor-shop,  shook  hands  with  his 
incoming  acquaintances  with  a  somewhat  unusual  manner 
of  kindly  interest.  "  I  hope  youse  will  entjoy  the  even 
ing  "  was  his  formal  welcome.  Perhaps  he  had  been 
drinking  before  he  came,  perhaps  not,  but  half  an  hour 
later,  dazed  and  wandering,  he  approached  a  guest  and 
her  escort  and  quavered,  "  If  youse  want  a  good  time 
why  don't  you  go  to  the  bar,  boy?"  He  continued  in  this 
state,  drinking  with  his  "  lady-fri-end  "  who,  according 
to  custom,  ordered  soda,  until  the  girl  decided  to  take 
him  away.  She  was  unwilling  to  expose  him  to  the  wrath 
of  his  people  and  guided  him  along  the  streets  to  her  own 
home  at  four  o'clock  in  the  morning.  Her  parents  shel 
tered  him  there  until  he  was  sober  enough  to  take  care  of 
himself. 

The  occurrence  is  not  usual,  but  it  was  not  adversely 
criticised  by  the  circle  which  heard  of  it.  Some  of  the 
comments  summed  it  up  as  a  good  joke  on  him  and  a  bit 
of  luck  that  the  girl  had  a  "  good  head  on  her." 

Although  the  inducement  to  drink  is  always  present, 
noticeable  drunkenness  is  seldom  seen.  The  racial  tem 
per  ateness  bred  by  a  stern  environment  has  not  yet  been 
appreciably  encroached  upon  by  a  laxer  habit  of  life. 
Flushed  faces,  restless  eyes,  and  stumbling  sibilants  are 
chiefly  indicative  of  the  frequent  treats ;  even  in  the  small 
hours  the  large  majority  is  no  more  than  merry.  In  the 
early  part  of  the  evening  it  seems  scarcely  that.  First  iin- 


PHILADELPHIA  241 

pressions  are  indeed  dispiriting.  The  room  is  cold,  half 
filled,  and  every  sound  echoes  from  its  unclean,  barren 
walls.  There  is  a  little  desultory  music  which  does  not 
affect  the  young  men  huddled  on  one  row  of  benches  or 
the  young  women  opposite  on  another.  Spirits  are  appar 
ently  at  a  low  ebb.  Suddenly  the  big  drum  booms,  the 
fiddle  squalls  horribly  with  every  vocal  cord,  the  clario 
net  playfully  caterwauls,  the  piano  emits  fearful  jangles, 
people  jump  into  the  air,  electrified  by  this  orchestral 
joke,  and  the  dance  begins.  It  moves  easily  without  other 
diversions  until  midnight,  when  a  Grand  Prize  Cake  Walk 
is  announced  and  babies  of  four  years,  with  other  contest 
ants  ranging  to  twenty-five  years,  gather  at  one  end  of  the 
room. 

They  are  fantastically  and  hideously  dressed,  the  little 
girls  in  short  fluffy  skirts,  soiled  fancy  shoes  and  stock 
ings,  hair  floating  or  strangely  coiffured,  necks  and  arms 
bare,  and  prize  medals  won  at  cake  walks  of  other  socials, 
proudly  decorating  their  little  chests.  The  young  men 
appear  as  darkies,  Uncle  Sam  or  vaudeville  tramps, 
their  faces  grotesquely  painted  with  ugly  daubs.  Pair  by 
pair  they  go  down  the  lines  of  clapping  spectators,  through 
the  contortions  of  the  cake  walk.  A  child  of  ten  years  may 
dance  with  a  young  man  of  thirty.  Many  couples  are,  in 
fact,  semi-professional  walkers  who  go  from  one  hall  to 
another,  competing  for  ^prizes.  Such  rounds  are  more  fre 
quently  made  by  Italians  and  ' '  Americans  ' '  than  by 
Jews.  The  performance  itself  is  a  vulgar  and  debasing 
exhibition  rapidly  becoming  worse.  Its  tendencies  are 
vicious,  and  although  the  majority  of  onlookers,  familiar 
with  its  easy  descent,  evidently  enjoy  it,  yet  expostulatory 
murmurs  are  heard  here  and  there. 

After  the  customary  "  walk,"  general  dancing  con 
tinues  an  hour  or  two,  when  the  Prize  Waltz,  either  double 
or  single  or  both,  is  announced.  Correct  form,  conven 
tional  steps,  are  not  winning  methods,  but  novelties  are. 
The  girl  who  can  whirl  pivot-like  an  incredible  number  of 
times  is  the  "  champeen."  Others  who  undulate  with 
fewest  points  of  contact  with  the  floor  also  take  prizes. 

When  the  ball  is  a  masquerade  the  fun  naturally 
marches  a  little  faster.  More  prizes  are  offered  and  "  the 
most  amusing,  the  most  character,  the  most  beautiful  " 
and  so  on,  being  individually  rewarded,  makes  it  worth 
while  for  a  minority  to  spend  time  and  money  on  cos- 


242  AMUSEMENTS  AND  SOCIAL  LIFE 

tumes.  Fifty  maskers  among  four  hundred  non-maskers 
can  change  the  entire  atmosphere  of  a  night.  To 
schottische  against  a  clown  walking  across  the  dancing 
space  upon  his  hands,  to  dash  him  prone,  to  be  pursued 
by  him  in  gesticulating  vengeance,  to  have  your  lancers 
set  stampeded  by  a  pair  of  Polish  peasants,  cracking  their 
long  whips  about  your  ears  and  threatening  you  in  an  in 
comprehensible  tongue, —  this  makes  all  hail  fellows  very 
well  met. 

It  is  a  picture  tinted  with  an  old  world,  continental 
tone,  but  emphatically  there  is  among  the  Jews  themselves 
no  indecorum,  no  ever-present  conscious  principle  of  evil 
in  the  fun,  which  is  but  a  coarser  expression  of  the  buf 
foonery  that  sometimes  animates  the  New  England  husking 
bee.  Judaism  and  Puritanism  both  are  faithful  watch 
dogs.  But  it  is  a  certainty  that  the  principle  of  evil  is 
just  at  the  door.  On  one  Halloween,  masked  parties  made 
the  tour  of  public  halls  and  after  midnight  began  to  ar 
rive  at  a  Jewish  Pleasure  Social  Ball.  One  party  not 
masked  consisted  of  a  number  of  women  who  came  in 
quietly.  They  looked  like  American  sales  girls  and  were 
unobstrusively  dressed  in  silk  shirt  waists  and  dark  skirts. 
But  they  were  slightly  rouged,  their  eyes  were  darkened, 
and  upon  them  was  the  indefinable  stamp  of  the  street. 
They  ordered  beer  and  fell  into  casual  talk  with  young  men 
at  the  same  table.  In  pairs  they  joined  the  dancers  and 
carelessly  mingled  with  the  Jewish  maidens  of  the  set. 
They  were  invited  to  dance  as  often  as  was  anybody  else 
and,  since  an  introduction  to  a  partner  is  not  a  necessary 
preliminary,  there  are  no  checks  placed  by  custom  upon 
the  number  of  acquaintances  these  women  of  a  separate 
world  can  make  in  a  single  evening.  This  Js_Jh]it_one  of 
many  inrM  pa  firms  that  ty  younger  American  generation 
of  J^ws_jiasljaeitber— the  social— desire  nor  the  religious 
scru^le~tokeep  itself.  .l(LJtself_jw^ict  .lias  .been  the  basic 
principle  with  its  Bussmft-.  born~parents. 

The  distinction  between  the  ball  given  by  the  genuine 
Pleasure  Social  and  the  business  ball  of  the  pseudo-social 
is  entirely  economic.  The  business  ball  tends  to  manifest 
itself  as  an  incipient  trust,  borrowing  somewhat  from  the 
better  developed  corporate  creature  in  the  field  of  more 
material  necessities  and  yet  not  restrained  by  standards  of 
living  or  of  aesthetic  tastes.  An  analogy  of  the  Business 
Social  may  exist  in  the  middle  man  who  arranges  for  his 


PHILADELPHIA  243 

employer  the  entertainments  at  a  summer  resort.  The  lat 
ter,  however,  acts  upon  instructions,  whereas  the  man 
ager  of  the  Business  Social  receives  no  orders  from 
society.  He  offers  what  he  will  and  pockets  the  returns. 
If  "  the  push  "  enjoys  cake  walks,  he  invites  us  to  one 
gayer  than  that  of  last  week;  if  we  want  a  masquerade  he 
advertises  the  article  with  more  prizes,  more  promenades, 
more  specialties,  and  cheaper  drinks  than  the  less  skilled 
promoter  dares  to  promise.  He  is  the  "  soulless  corpora 
tion  "  entity,  and  his  influence  is  felt. 

The  third  class,  the  "  Chartered  Social,"  as  a  gambling 
club  meeting  behind  closed  doors  in  an  unsocial  fashion, 
is  outside  the  legitimate  fields  of  fun.  It  thrives  on  the 
gambling  trait  in  the  Jewish  character,  and  manifests  it 
self  in  raffles,  lotteries,  policy  playing,  and  that  elaborate 
nndpr^Tonnd  system  in  fVhfm?A  which  is  a  symptom  of 
social  disorder. 

Hall.  Weddings, ^outnumber  the  Social  Balls  nearly  ten 
to  one,_  The  ancient  Mosaic  customs,  the  ceremonial  dance, 
the  tearful  kissing,  the  cries  of  mazel  tov  (good  luck),  sug 
gest  permanence,  privacy,  affairs  between  friends,  and 
family  celebrations.  But  the  impression  is  false  and 
springs  from  the  fact  that  the  world-loved  lover  is  here 
the  centre  of  things,  and  belongs  to  the  jovial  stranger 
within  the  gates  as  well  as  to  the  numerically  insignificant 
circle  of  personal  acquaintances.  To  join  a  wedding  party 
it  sometimes  costs  nothing  at  all,  sometimes  ten  cents, 
which  is  a  low  price  to  pay  for  the  combined  pleasures  of 
a  dance,  a  pageant,  and  a  feast.  None  is  denied  admission. 
Neither  the  work-grimed  boy,  who,  seeking  what  he  may 
devour,  drops  in  on  his  way  home  from  his  daily  grind,  is 
questioned,  nor  the  society  stranger  who  wears  a  cellu 
loid,  perhaps  a  linen  collar,  and  also  frankly  exploits  the 
occasion. 

The  bride  and  groom,  reckoning  upon  scores  of  such 
guests  among  the  hundreds  of  friends*  friends  formally 
invited  by  card,  often  spend  literally  their  last  cent  upon 
their  entertainment.  Yet  it  is  cheerfully  offered  as  a  sac 
rifice  to  fate  and  enjoyed  as  an  augury  of  future  pros 
perity.  Not  long  ago  at  the  wedding  of  a  daughter  of  a 
family  desperately  poor,  the  various  sources  of  supply 
were  drained  to  the  bottom.  The  newly-made  husband 
and  wife  were  bankrupt,  but  every  guest  was  fed  with 
chicken,  potatoes,  bread,  fruit  and  cake,  nor  were  the  beer 


244  AMUSEMENTS  AND  SOCIAL  LIFE 

and  whiskey  allowed  to  ebb.  The  pair  was  radiant  and 
yet  —  To-morrow  loomed  from  the  wreckage  on  the  tables. 
The  groom  looked  at  his  bride :  *  *  Well,  girl,  we  got  mar 
ried  on  our  nerve. "  She  smiled  and  murmured,  "  Yes, 
something  fierce,  ain  't  it  ? " 

A  synagogue  ceremony  increases  the  wedding  expenses 
so  heavily  that  the  number  of  such  ceremonies  is  falling 
off  year  by  year.  It  is  also  necessary  to  approximate 
punctuality,  an  unlovely  condition  guests  do  not  like 
to  face.  If  a  synagogue  service  is  dated  for  six  o'clock  it 
must  take  place  between  that  hour  and  eight  when  the 
wedding-party  is  expected  at  the  Hall  to  receive  its  guests. 
The  Hall  wedding  invitation  announces  that  the  wedding 
ceremony  will  take  place  at  six.  An  hour  later  carriages 
call  for  the  nearest  friends  of  the  pair  and  then  proceed 
to  the  groom's  home.  Thence  in  procession  they  go  for  the 
bride  and  escort  her  to  the  ball.  There  in  front  of  a 
stage  upon  a  raised  platform  painted  with  the  immemorial 
sacred  insignia  of  the  Hebrew  faith  and  punctuated  with 
red,  white  and  blue  electric  lights,  the  pair  receive  their 
friends.  Women  cry,  men  kiss  each  other  and  the  bridal 
couple  wait  restive  until  the  hall  is  full,  frightened  when 
it  is,  since  this  is  an  indication  that  the  ceremony  will 
soon  take  place.  When  the  last  stragglers  presumably 
have  arrived  between  ten  and  eleven  o'clock,  a  large  plat 
form  surmounted  by  the  chuppah  (marriage  canopy)  is 
pushed  into  the  middle  of  the  floor.  Willing  hands  are 
laid  upon  it,  for  whoever  pushes  is  l '  forgiven  many  sins. ' ' 

The  orchestra  plays  the  latest  two-step  and  the  groom, 
followed  by  ten  friends  holding  candles  aloft,  slowly  goes 
to  meet  his  bride.  Half  solemn,  half  laughing,  the  bridal 
party  marches  under  the  canopy.  The  rabbi  lifts  his  voice 
in  the  strange  wail  of  the  ritual.  The  onlookers  laugh  and 
whisper,  and  some  old  man  beside  the  groom  flashes  his 
sombre  eyes  upon  the  offenders.  He  lifts  his  candle  and 
peers  at  them.  "  Be  silent  there,"  he  cries. 

The  music  begins  again  and  frivoling  couples,  under  its 
influence,  break  from  the  mass  and  dance  enthusiastically 
over  the  cleared  space.  When  the  glass  is  broken  and  the 
wine  is  drunk,  the  bridal  party  is  kissed  all  around  amid 
cries  of  il  good  luck  "  and  the  music  of  shear  (a  Bulgarian 
quadrille).  All  the  guests  form  the  wedding  march  round 
and  round  the  hall,  which  terminates  in  the  move  toward 
the  supper  room.  On  the  moment,  the  leisurely  progress 


PHILADELPHIA  245 

waxes  without  disguise  into  a  rush  for  place  and  the  feast 
becomes  a  plunge  for  food.  Instantly  the  food  disappears 
from  the  plates,  the  bottled  beer  is  seized,  a  dozen  forks 
dive  into  the  scattered  platters  of  fish  or  chicken  or  potato, 
and  supper  is  over  in  a  twinkling.  Healths  are  drunk,  con 
gratulatory  telegrams  are  read  (fakes,  say  the  critics), 
and  the  wedded  pair  is  taken  to  the  rabbi's  corner  for  a 
last  word  of  blessing. 

The  guests  dance  till  four  o'clock, —  strange  old  world 
dances  to  tuneless  music;  peasant  dances  from  Roumania, 
Austria  and  Russia;  competitive  dances  between  men, 
circling  dances  of  women  whirling,  laughing  and  embrac 
ing  each  other.  It  is  greatly  enjoyed  by  all  except  the 
bride,  who  is  often  desperately  tired  and  ill  after  her 
twenty-four  hours'  fast.  But  etiquette  demands  that  she 
remain  until  the  fun  is  abandoned,  and  she  bravely  keeps 
at  her  post.  She  goes  at  length  to  her  new  home  and  an 
other  day  finds  her  going  to  market  while  her  husband  is 
at  work  again  in  the  old  place  in  shop  or  factory. 

The  "  Dancing  Class  "  usually  meets  in  a  second  story 
room  over  a  shop  or  in  a  tenement.  It  is  conducted  by  a 
man  or  men  who  may  know  how  to  dance  but  who  do  not 
know  how  to  teach.  There  is  evidently  no  appreciation  of 
the  value  of  etiquette  and  convention  as  supplements  of 
the  waltz  step.  The  "  class  "  does  as  it  pleases  and  at 
tends  the  "  benefits  "  which  the  teacher  gives  his  "  col 
league  "  and  those  which  the  "  colleague  "  gratefully  ar 
ranges  for  the  teacher.  The  attendance  on  class  nights, 
Friday  by  choice,  is  not  very  large,  but  there  are  many 
classes  in  the  entire  district.  The  same  young  people  may 
be  found  in  the  same  place  night  after  night  dancing  for 
the  entire  evening  with  the  same  partner.  In  the  course 
of  time  these  partners  develop  specialties  of  their  own 
which,  when  carried  to  a  certain  degree  of  perfection,  pro 
mote  them  as  prize  waltzers  at  public  balls  or  to  the  rank 
of  cake  walkers.  The  class  may  be  mixed  in  its  nationali 
ties.  Jews,  Italians,  Irish,  and  "  Americans  "  meet  ami 
ably,  waiving  all  differences  of  race  and  religion  but  cling 
ing  to  personal  differences  in  step  and  bearing. 

In  the  amusements  developed  by  industrial  and  political 
parties  and  literary  and  charitable  societies,  there  is  at 
length  accented  that  intellectual  quality,  that  spontaneous 
mental  activity  of  the  Russian  Jewish  mind,  which  reveals 
to  the  observation  the  scholar  garbed  as  the  factory  hand. 


246  AMUSEMENTS  AND  SOCIAL  LIFE 

Here  is  higher  thinking,  frequently  yoked  with  plainer 
living  than  that  known  to  the  theatre-going  Pleasure  So 
cial  population.  The  distinction  is  not  that  named  the  eco 
nomic  "  standard  of  living  "  which  falls  into  the  molds 
cast  by  the  student  of  sociology,  but  rather  that  strong  and 
in tq,n gihlf^fetjn^tionjbetween  those JndiyJuduals  who_spirit- 
nally jtspirf  and  thosf  who  c(n  not. 

In  fact,  the  pressure  of  material  wants  seems  to  bear 
more  heavily  upon  these  mentally  active  thousands  than  it 
does  upon  their  fellows  living  upon  the  same  economic 
plane.  The  latter  spend  the  larger  share  of  their  wages 
upon  personal  decorations,  the  former  upon  the  acquire 
ment  of  invisible  goods.  They  would  rather  engage  a 
party  leader  to  speak  to  them  than  to  attract  patrons  with 
the  glare  of  a  hired  band.  They  choose  to  pay  the  travel 
ing  expenses  of  an  out-of-town  "  Yiddishe  "  poet  rather 
than  to  put  the  money  into  the  treasurer's  hands  whence 
it  ultimately  converts  itself  into  neckties  and  cigars.  In 
practice,  the  dancing  half  of  "  Concert  and  Ball"  or 
"  Speeches  and  Ball  "  is  tacitly  postponed  until  the  long 
programme  has  been  enjoyed  to  its  final  midnight  number. 
Literary  and  charitable  societies  incline  to  addresses,  reci 
tations,  songs,  and  piano  and  violin  music,  and  legerde 
main.  The  programmes  of  the  two  great  parties,  Social  La 
bor  and  Social  Democratic,  are  made  of  the  sterner  stuff 
of  political  and  industrial  agitation;  the  charitable  and 
literary  societies  view  our  situation  as  less  acutely  serious, 
and  arrange  their  material  without  propaganda.  If  the 
material  is  original  with  the  person  who  presents  it  so 
much  more  does  the  audience  enjoy  it.  If  not,  it  is  re 
ceived  with  sufficient  attention,  although  the  listeners  also 
talk  together  with  a  free  and  easy  appreciation  of  the  so 
cial  motive  of  the  hour. 

The  programme  of  the  Russian  Tea  Party  given  from 
time  to  time  by  unofficial  individuals  to  aid  persons  or  to 
further  plans  not  falling  under  a  formal  charity,  fairly 
represents  this  section  of  amusements.  A  home-sick, 
broken-down  girl  had  been  saying  for  some  time  that  she 
would  never  be  well  unless  she  could  go  back  to  Odessa, 
and  accordingly  the  proceeds  of  the  next  Russian  Tea 
Party  were  given  to  her.  The  services  of  fifteen  volunteer 
performers  were  accepted.  The  first  one  came  upon  the 
stage  at  half  past  nine  o  'clock.  Piano  solos  and  duets,  vocal 
solos  and  duets,  legerdemain  and  recitation  alternated, 


PHILADELPHIA  247 

with  intermission,  while  tea  was  served  from  shining 
samovars,  and  bread  and  apples  were  piled  again  upon  the 
tables.  There  was  some  noise  and  confusion  during  the 
music,  but  when  a  vest-making  poet  recited  a  long  poem  in 
classical  Hebrew,  satirizing  the  poet's  income  from  his 
verse  and  the  comparative  wealth  of  the  tailoring  trade, 
the  house  quieted  to  absorbed  attention.  They  seized  it 
hungrily,  this  product  of  mind,  and  they  called  the  author 
back  again  and  again.  They  received  each  new  poem  with 
intuitive  appreciation  of  a  well  turned  phrase  and  a  critical 
survey  of  the  art  for  the  art's  sake.  When  the  poet  smiled 
and  pointed  to  their  '  *  wounds,  '  '  they  smiled  too  ;  at  a  hint 
of  playfulness  mirth  lightened  grave  faces.  There  were 
ripples  of  laughter  here  and  there  and  it  seemed  as  if  sun 
light  had  flashed  across  the  room. 

The  labor  parties  and  the  labor  unions  attain  perhaps 
the  highest  level  of  excellence.    Native  born  men  of  repu-    / 
tation  are  asked  to  speak  —  a  Socialist  mayor  was  warmly  y 
welcomed  —  and  there  is  a  sustained  interest  in  American 
civics  and  in  practical  and  Utopian  legislation  leading  to 
industrial  relief. 

Their  jDaJJ^arerwt^^  opportunities  for 

smoking,  and  food.       The 


anarchists,  for  several  years,  have  varied  the  winter's  rou 
tine  by  making  of  their  Grand  Annual  Ball  a  visual  satire 
upon  the  institutions  of  church  and  state.  Young  men 
dressed  as  Cossacks,  policemen  or  Royal  Guardsmen,  pa 
trol  the  hall  and  when  "  the  people,"  armed  with  whistles, 
give  shrill  signals  they  throw  themselves  upon  a  bystander 
and  drag  him  to  a  buffoon  judge.  He  mouths  at  the  of 
fender  and  fines  him  five  cents  for  the  good  of  the  an 
archist  propaganda.  A  priest  of  the  Greek  church 
marries  couples  for  five  cents  under  the  Jewish  chuppah, 
and  these  unions  have  in  more  than  one  case  formed  the 
sole  ceremonial  basis  of  an  American  home.  There  is 
much  laughter  and  merriment  as  the  anarchist  "  priest  " 
goes  through  his  mummery.  It  is  a  surprise  to  learn  that 
his  gibberish  has  in  truth  made  a  marriage.  All  the  time 
while  whistles  and  shrieks  of  soldiers  and  people  fill  the 
air  and  while  the  "  priest  "  intones,  persistent  hawkers 
cry,  '  '  Buy  bar  tickets  !  Buy  bar  tickets  !  '  '  and  thrust  for 
ward  checks  entitling  one  to  drink.  Many  buy,  induced 
by  a  business  trick  of  the  management,  which  turns  on 
the  steam  heat,  closes  the  windows,  and  so  generates  an 


248  AMUSEMENTS  AND  SOCIAL  LIFE 

almost  insufferable  atmosphere  with  its  concomitant 
thirst.  The  green-horn  on  these  occasions  is  subjected  to 
sore-throat,  dizziness  and  general  malaise  until  he  ceases 
to  be  a  green-horn. 

From  this  gaiety  that  stings  and  fun  brewed  in  bitter 
ness,  from  the  boisterous  laughter  of  a  group  whose  criti 
cism  of  Society  is  anarchy,  it  is  but  a  step  to  gaiety  that 
seeks  to  soothe,  to  fun  springing  from  sympathy  and  the 
disciplined  quiet  of  another  group  whose  criticism  of  So 
ciety  is  without  a  party  name.  Here  and  there  and  far 
apart  are  the  regenerative  agencies,  the  endowed  club 
rooms,  the  social  settlements,  and  the  philanthropies,  all 
overcrowded  and  closing  their  doors  to  those  who  would 
Sa7  "  7es  "  to  an  invitation  to  enter.  Everywhere  are 
those  other  agencies  which  would  make  for  the  brutaliza- 
tion  of  their  habitues  were  it  not  for  the  innate  fineness  of 
those  habitues  themselves.  They  are  trained  to  the  desire 
for  better  things  and  they  do  not  know  how  to  find  them 
in  America.  Wherever  they  can  gain  a  foothold,  a  corner 
for  their  debates,  literary  societies  persevere  and  thrive. 
A  rare  evening  of  good  music  echoes  for  months  in  the 
memories  of  the  young  men  and  women  who  almost  night 
ly  hear  the  clattering  discords  of  the  dance-hall;  a  lecture 
on  the  unseen  beauties  of  our  environment  arrests  the 
gaze  upon  quaint  doorways  and  curling  smoke.  In  this 
great  neglected  garden  of  human-kind  the  gardeners  are 
too  few.  Sometimes  the  greatest  pity  and  pathos  of  it 
all  seems  to  be  the  fertility  of  the  field  which  awaits  the 
seeds  of  Order,  Beauty,  and  Knowledge  so  seldom  flung 
within  its  boundaries. 


(C)  CHICAGO 

In  general  the  Russian  Jew  takes  his  amusements  seri 
ously.  It  is  no  mad  endeavor  to  be  epigrammatic  which 
induces  the  statement  that  his  amusement  is  almost  a  busi 
ness,  his  business  all  but  his  amusement.  Persecution  in 
the  old  country,  the  struggle  for  existence  in  the  new, 
have  been  anything  but  conducive  to  lightness  of  heart  or 
of  touch.  It  is  enticing  to  enter  on  the  subject  of  the 
philosophy  of  amusements,  to  make  comparisons  and  to 
draw  wider  conclusions,  but  the  limits  of  this  paper 
forbid. 

The  breaking  of  a  glass  in  the  orthodox  wedding  cere 
mony  of  the  Russian  Jew  is  deeply  symbolical  of  every 
amusement  of  the  Ghetto.  The  glass  is  broken  —  so  runs 
the  explanation  —  to  warn  the  Jew  that  he  must  not  com 
pletely  surrender  himself  to  mirth  no  matter  how  festive 
the  occasion:  Zion  lies  in  ruin  and  it  behooves  the  sons 
of  the  Covenant  to  be  cast  down  until  its  walls  be  built 
up.  Metaphorically  the  glass  is  broken  in  the  very  com 
edies  of  the  Yiddish  theatres.  The  sound  of  its  shattering 
runs  through  the  strains  of  Jewish  folk  music,  you  hear 
it  in  the  heavy  mongrel  tones  of  the  Yiddish  jargon  itself, 
and  the  serious  faces  of  the  older  folk  of  our  modern 
American  Ghettos  are  as  constrained  as  if  they  were  ever 
awaiting  the  melancholy  crash  of  the  fragile  stuff  of  which 
life  itself  is  made. 

The  sober  cast  of  Ghetto,  of  Russian  Jewish  amuse 
ments,  becomes  strikingly  apparent  the  moment  one  takes 
even  a  cursory  bird's-eye-view  of  the  subject  in  its  entirety. 
While  outlining  my  theme  for  this  series  of  papers,  to 
take  an  instance,  I  found  it  difficult  to  draw  a  hard  and 
fast  line  between  the  diversion  afforded  by  the  synagogue  x  / 
and  its  festivals,  and  the  pastimes  which  are  purely  secu-  v/ 
lar.  I  am  not  sure  that  a  comprehensive  paper  should 
not  include  both;  so  intimately  do  the  beth  hamedrash 
(house  of  learning  connected  with  the  synagogue)  and 
the  religious  rites  and  festivals  enter  into  the  amenities  of 

249 


250  AMUSEMENTS  AND  SOCIAL  LIFE 

Ghetto  life,  so  much  does  religion  contribute  to  the  mere 
pleasure  of  the  orthodox  Russian  Jew  —  pleasure  which 
his  less  orthodox  brethren  seek  in  the  secular  world  with 
out.  And  beyond  all  this  there  are  a  reason  and  a  philoso 
phy  that  lie  deeper  than  a  superficial  observation  might 
at  first  lead  one  to  suppose;  but  again  the  lack  of  space 
forbids  the  digression. 

Chicago's  one  Yiddish  theatre,  formerly  the  Metropoli 
tan,  next  called  the  Irwin,  and  afterward  Gliekman's,  was 
almost  exclusively  devoted  to  the  presentation  of  Jewish 
historical  and  religious  plays,  and  to  operas  historical  or 
religious  in  theme.  The  literary  standard  of  the  dramas 
presented  here  was  about  on  a  par  with  those  produced 
in  English  theatres  attended  by  audiences  of  the  same 
status  in  life  as  the  Russian  Jews  of  the  Ghetto,  and 
where  the  price  of  admission  is  about  the  same.  In  the 
old  Metropolitan  theatre  I  saw  a  Yiddish  adaptation  of 
"  The  Streets  of  New  York"  and  ''Woman  Against 
Woman/'  which  to  the  discerning  will  sum  up  the  story 
fairly  well.  "  Fairly  well  "  is  used  advisedly  because  the 
standard  of  comparison  is  by  no  means  rigid;  for  now  and 
then  Mr.  Ellis  F.  Glickman,  who  is  actor,  manager  and 
playwright,  too,  puts  a  play  on  the  boards  which  is  su 
perior  in  most  respects  to  the  average  attraction  offered 
by  the  surrounding  theatres  of  the  English-speaking  dis 
tricts.  The  same  assertion  may  be  made,  within  certain 
bounds,  of  the  acting  of  the  members  of  Mr.  Glickman 's 
Yiddish  stock  company.  The  theatre  is  now  closed  be 
cause  it  did  not  comply  with  the  city  regulations  passed 
in  the  fall  of  1903  after  the  disastrous  Iroquois  fire.  There 
is  therefore  no  regular  Yiddish  theatre  here,  "  The  Pa 
vilion  "  being  merely  a  hall  for  vaudeville  performances 
and  in  no  way  representing  the  better  intelligence  of  the 
Chicago  Russian  Jew. 

However,  certain  allowances  ought  to  be  made  for  the 
Yiddish  actor  when  comparing  him  with  the  English 
speaking  members  of  the  profession  who  appeal  to  audi 
ences  of  about  the  same  grade  at  about  the  same  price.  In 
the  first  place,  the  Yiddish  actor  is  harder  pushed  —  every 
week  sees  a  change  of  bill  and  he  scarcely  has  had  time  to 
commit  the  lines  of  one  part  before  he  is  rehearsing  the 
roles  of  a  new  play  (which  is  the  reason,  by  way  of  paren 
thesis,  why  the  prompter  is  always  in  evidence)  ;  and  sec 
ondly,  the  Yiddish  actor  is  nine  times  out  of  ten  a  Yid- 


CHICAGO  251 

dish  singer  as  well.  He  is  more  apt  to  win  popularity 
among  our  Chicago  Russian  Jewish  audiences  by  good 
singing  than  by  an  artistic  rendering  of  a  character.  The 

Ghetto   pilHiPnnpg  arp  ftlainnrfms ._rn_ .fhfiir  irigistpTiP.p.   on  mu- 

sic  and  singing,  and  the  encore  and  the  applause  always 
go  to  theinost  pleasing  song  and  the  best  voice.  Fine 
music  finds  quick  appreciation  here ;  and  in  this  one  re 
spect  certainly  both  audience  and  performers  are  far  su 
perior  to  the  audience  and  performers  of  the  English 
theatres  of  a  corresponding  grade.  The  orchestra  of  the 
Yiddish  theatre  is  excelled  by  few  in  Chicago,  nor  is  this 
in  any  wise  accidental,  for  the  Yiddish  theatre  without 
good  music  were  equivalent  to  a  play  without  scenery. 

I  saw  in  the  Irwin  theatre  a  play  which  was  a  Yiddish 
adaptation  of  Hamlet  and  the  whole  performance  struck 
me  as  very  much  like  the  play  of  Hamlet  with  the  part 
of  Hamlet  left  out.  Shakespeare  was  most  neatly  adapted 
out  of  the  tragedy  to  make  room  for  up-to-date  melo 
dramatic  situations,  for  orthodox  Jewish  religious  ceremo 
nials,  and  for  the  dramatic  triumph  of  the  production  — 
the  singing  of  the  Kaddish  (prayer  for  the  dead).  A  line 
or  two  copied  from  the  programme  may  suffice  to  give 
even  those  who  were  not  privileged  to  see  "  The  Jewish 
Hamlet  "  an  idea  of  the  broad  license  that  the  adapter 
allowed  himself.  ' '  Act  IV,  Scene  2  —  Great  scene  of  the 
Jewish  cemetery.  Beautiful  scenery  painted  specially  for 
this  production.  Sad  wedding  of  Vigder  (Hamlet)  and 
his  dead  bride  Esther  (Ophelia)  according  to  the  Jewish 
religion. ' ' 

From  the  plays  which  any  manager  may  supply  it  is 
always  unsafe  to  draw  conclusions  of  what  the  audience 
may  demand.  I  should  be  loath  to  deduce  from  the  mere 
presentation  of  this  Yiddish  Hamlet  and  plays  of  its  type 
that  Russian  Jewish  audiences  were  eager  for  the  spilling 
of  blood  and  for  ultra-sensational  situations  and  scenes. 
I  noticed,  and  with  more  than  a  little  rejoicing,  that  those 
sins  against  good  taste  which  were  intended  to  appeal  to 
the  sympathies  of  the  audience  won  applause  from  the 
galleries  only,  and  that  the  parquet,  which  represented  the 
better  class  of  the  Russian  Jews  of  the  Ghetto,  looked  on 
in  ominous  silence  at  what  they  were  unable  to  translate 
emotively. 

I  believe  that  the  younger  element  of  the  Ghetto  is  far 
more  attracted  by  what  lies  without  than  what  lies  within 


252  AMUSEMENTS  AND  SOCIAL  LIFE 

the  confines  of  that  narrow  district,  and  the  constant  tend 
ency  in  amusements,  as  in  other  things,  is  centrifugal. 
The  variety  theatres  down-town,  the  play-houses  on  the 
surrounding  streets,  draw  a  larger  audience  of  young  Rus 
sian  Jews  than  the  Ghetto  theatre  itself.  With  very  few 
exceptions  —  it  may  be  doubted  whether  the  phrase  is 
half  strong  enough  —  the  younger  Russian  Jews  are 
\  neither  proud  of  their  Yiddish  jargon~noF  of  the  ways  of 
\jtheir  ancestors,  and  they  are  only  too  quick  to jaccept  any- 
x  •thinjgjjiat  may  have  an^Americanizing  influence.  In  Chi 
cago,  at  any  rate,  the  Yiddish  theatre  is  not  likely  to  out 
last  the  life  of  the  present  generation,  and  it  is  fairly  open 
to  question  whether  it  will  endure  that  long. 

The  lodges  form  a  most  significant  element  in  the 
amusement  of  the  Ghetto  and  contribute  not  a  little  to  its 
social  life,  while  like  almost  every  other  diversion,  they 
add,  or  at  least  carry  along,  an  element  of  religion  and 
charity.  The  various  lodges,  with  their  numerous  orders 
and  divisions,  ramify  through  the  entire  Ghetto,  spread 
ing  out  in  every  direction,  leaving  few  families  uninflu 
enced  by  their  existence.  The  Chicago  Ghetto  contains 
seventy-five  recorded  lodges,  thirty-two  of  which  belong 
to  the  Order  of  B 'rith^OTfaham  and  twenty  to  the  West 
ern  Star, —  a  purely  Chicago  organization,  and  the  other 
twenty-three  to  orders  of  less  prominence.  Like  their 
Christian  prototypes,  the  western  lodges  render  an  impor 
tant  economic  service,  namely  that  of  life  insurance, 
which,  when  all  is  said  and  done,  serves  as  the  chief  rea 
son  and  the  best  cause  for  their  existence. 

Every  once  in  so  often,  one  of  the  seventy-five  lodges 
will  announce  a  ball  or  a  party  by  way  of  benefit  for  the 
impoverished  family  of  a  defunct  member,  and  so  it  is 
that  these  orders  indirectly  contribute  their  share  to  the 
amusement  of  the  Ghetto. 

Regarding  all  balls  and  parties  given  in  the  Russian 
Jewish  district,  it  may  be  asserted  that  there  is  little  if 
anything  to  distinguish  them  from  the  social  functions  of 
a  like  nature  given  by  Christians  of  the  same  status,  and 
what  little  there  is  goes  in  favor  of  the  Russian  Jew  on 
the  side  of  decorum.  I  know  from  my  own  studies  in  the 
district  through  which  Milwaukee  Avenue  cuts  diagonally, 
and  which  represents  one  of  the  most  cosmopolitan  popu 
lations  in  the  city  of  Chicago,  that  the  moral  effect  of  the 
weekly  Saturday  night  balls  and  masquerades  is  anything 


CHICAGO  253 

but  elevating,  and  that  the  road  to  ruin  for  many  a  young 
girl  begins  here. 

Cases  of  moral  depravity  resulting  from  any  dance 
given  in  the  Ghetto  district  are  rare  enough  to  be  prac 
tically  unknown.  Of  course,  home  training,  custom  and 
other  elements  must  be  taken  into  consideration  when 
weighing  the  moral  problem,  and  this  lies  outside  of  this 
paper's  boundaries. 

Zionism,  which  so  deeply  imbues  the  life  and  spirit  of 
our  American  Ghettos  at  the  present  time,  may  be  re 
garded  as  the  chief  religious  feature  of  the  lodges,  for  they 
are  more  or  less  animated  by  its  doctrines  and  given  to  the 
promulgation  of  its  benefits. 

The  same  religious  purpose  sublimates  the  one  impor 
tant  literary  society  of  our  Ghetto,  the  Hebrew  Literary 
Association,  which  has  a  regular  meeting  place  on  West 
Twelfth  Street.  The  library  of  the  association  numbers 
over  2,000  volumes  devoted  all  but  exclusively  to  modern 
Hebrew  literature  as  contradistinguished  from  the  still 
more  modern  Yiddish  jargon.  The  club  holds  regular 
Sunday  night  meetings  to  listen  to  lectures  in  English  and 
Yiddish  given  by  local  authorities  on  Jewish  history  and 
literature,  and  less  often  to  lectures  on  classic  English 
prose  and  poetry.  The  surplus  in  the  treasury  of  the  club 
is  given  to  the  Order  of  the  Knights  of  Zion,  which  con 
tains  six  branches,  numbering  over  500  members  in  all, 
and  this  society  in  turn  holds  regular  meetings  in  Forges, 
Schwarz,  or  Turner  Halls,  to  spread  a  knowledge  of 
Hebrew  history,  language  and  literature,  with  the  central 
object  of  stimulating  the  Zionistic  movement.  The  young 
er  members  of  the  Knights  of  Zion  Order  have  their  lec 
tures  and  lessons  in  English,  the  older  members  in  Yid 
dish.  Besides  the  assistance  which  the  Hebrew  Literary 
Association  lends  the  Knights  of  Zion,  it  also  contributes 
liberally  to  a  Zionistic  Sunday  school  for  children,  where 
instruction  is  given  in  what  may  be  broadly  termed  Juda 
ism  and  Zionism.  So  again  in  surveying  Ghetto  amuse 
ments  in  their  entirety,  the  religious  impulse  and  fervor 
become  salient. 

The  Lessing  Club,  which  is  far  removed  from  the 
Ghetto  district,  is  composed  of  wealthier  Russian  Jewish 
members  than  any  of  the  organizations  yet  mentioned,  and 
is,  I  believe,  higher  in  social  rank.  There  is  nothing  in 
particular  to  differentiate  the  Lessing  from  a  hundred  and 


254  AMUSEMENTS  AND  SOCIAL  LIFE 

one  other  clubs  in  the  city,  although  the  younger  members 
have  formed  the  Lessing  Self -Educational  Club,  which  is 
just  what  the  name  would  imply.  Like  the  Hebrew  Liter 
ary  Association  the  Lessing  Self -Educational  Club  em 
ploys  specialists  to  give  lectures  on  literature  and  the  arts ; 
and  meetings  are  held  with  exercises  and  papers,  for  the 
purpose  of  spreading  education  and  culture. 

The  feast  and  ceremonies  of  the  weddings  contribute  at 
least  an  element  of  amusement,  and  so  by  a  liberal  inter 
pretation  may  be  given  a  place  in  the  topic.  The  more 
orthodox  of  the  Russian  Jews  are  married  in  the  syna 
gogue,  the  less  orthodox,  who  are  in  a  rapidly  growing  ma 
jority,  are  married  without  its  walls,  either  at  home  or  in 
one  of  the  public  halls.  In  the  synagogue  weddings  the 
glass  dish  is  broken  and  the  parents  of  the  bride  lead  her 
three  times  around  the  groom,  who  stands  under  the 
canopy.  The  postnuptial  festivities  vary  in  brilliancy  ac 
cording  to  the  means  and  liberality  of  the  bride 's  parents ; 
dancing  and  music  are  an  important  feature  and  few,  if 
any,  weddings  are  without  them.  The-^tgndency  to  copy 
/he  .forms  observed  by  the  non-Ghetto  ano! rMrer  Jews 
'grows  stronger  with  the  passing  of  eyery_clay,  and  the  cus 
toms  ^ecunaZIa]31ewIsh._w£.d  d  i n gs^^e  Jighti&g-a-  battle  for 
surviyaLJnL-JKhic.h..-^ppar.ently  they-^&ust  sooa  lose.  In 
short,  the  Americanization  oJLtho  Russian. Jew  is  thorough 
going;  jind  his  amusements,,  his  customs  — _all the  outer 
reflections  of  at  leastjthe  superficial part  of  his  inner  life 
—  are  taking ""on tTie  color  and  f orm-of  his  environment, 
standing  out  less  and  less  as .^n. entity  distinguished  by  a 
color  and  form  all  its  own. 


3 
o 
O 


II 

S  s 
3  ^ 


^ 

.2 


h  ..  ,<•  BILKING   TIME 

Jewish  Agricultural  Settlement,  Balfour,  N.  D. 


NEW    RECRUITS    AND    THEIR    POULTRY    YARD 

Jewish  Agricultural  Settlement,  near  Bangor,  Mich. 


VIII 
POLITICS 


POLITICS 
(A)  NEW  YORK 

All  political  parties,  whether  national  or  local,  find  re 
cruits  and  adherents  among  the  people  who  have  been 
forced  to  leave  the  realm  of  the  Czars  for  the  past  quar 
ter  of  a  century.  Contrary  to  expectation,  these  new 
voters  are  not  grouped  and  collected  under  the  banner  of 
any  one  political  party  or  any  one  clan. 

Their  political  activity  dates  back  to  the  early  eighties, 
when  the  first  wave  of  the  great  mass  of  Russian  Jewish 
immigration  reached  these  shores.  It  was  then  that  the 
influx  of  Russian  students  began  and  lent  a  peculiar  color 
to  the  character  and  activities  of  the  Jewish  immigrants. 
As  might  have  been  expected,  the  effect  of  liberty  upon 
the  masses  of  Russian  Jews  downtrodden  in  their  mother 
country  was  in  the  beginning  apparently  disastrous.  The 
anarchists  and  the  socialists  found  some  of  their  most  ac 
tive  supporters  among  these  younger  Russian  fugitives. 
The  older  class,  either  because  of  ignorance  of  politics  or 
by  reason  of  the  immediate  problem  of  supporting  their 
usually  large  families,  could  not  avail  themselves  of  the 
same  educational  facilities.  Their  sons  in  the  short  space 
of  time  required  for  citizenship,  after  a  course  at  the  day 
or  evening  schools,  were  able  to  cope  with  other  electors. 
But  the_ older  immigrants^were  not  Irnig  t,n  remain  hATiinrI 
in  their  duties  as  AmerlcarL^citizens.  After  a  remarkably 
short  time,  old  and  young  became  citizens^nd  set  to  work 
to  jiiasler-lhe- .fundamental  principles  -of -American  consti 
tutional  government.  Questions  of  the  municipality  began 
to  engage  their  attention.  Soon  they  not  only  mastered 
the  problems  that  were  propounded  by  the  national  and 
state  parties,  but  also  became  eager  students  of  municipal 
affairs.  So  important  a  factor  has  the  Russian  Jewish 
vote  become  in  recent  years  that  all  parties  have  made  a 
bid  for  its  united  support. 

We  are  now  brought  to  the  consideration  of  the  position 

256 


NEW  YORK  257 

the  Russian  Jew  has  of  late  years  assumed  with  respect 
to  the  dominant  political  parties.  As  a  rule,  each  class  of 
voters  belonging  to  a  particular  nationality  before  natural 
ization  is  claimed  in  toto  by  either  one  or  the  other  of  the 
two  great  political  parties.  The  Russian  Jews,  however, 
in  spite  of  the  fact  that  they  were  distributed  among 
all  the  parties  as  to  national  questions,  have  in  municipal 
affairs  occupied  a  unique  position  of  late.  In  the  cam 
paign  of  1897  they  were  very  largely  among  the  reform 
forces  then  organized  by  the  Citizens'  Union.  Although 
the  almost  solid  vote  of  the  Russian  Jews  had  little  effect 
upon  the  general  result,  at  that  time  it  was  sufficiently  im 
portant  to  arrest  the  attention  of  the  fusion  party  in  the 
next  municipal  campaign  of  1901.  It  is  almost  incredible, 
but  is  nevertheless  a  fact,  that  the  entire  machinery  of  the 
fusion  campaign  was  largely  directed  to  that  portion  of 
the  city  mostly  inhabited  by  the  Russian  Jewish  citizens. 
It  was  there  that  the  successful  candidates  for  mayor  and 
district  attorney  made  their  strongest  appeals  and  re 
ceived  the  most  encouraging  response.  Little  did  they  know 
the  character  of  the  citizens  they  so  anxiously  tried  to  con 
vince  of  the  justice  of  their  cause.  For  never  in  their 
wildest  dreams  did  they  expect  such  an  upheaval.  But 
those  who  know  the  Russian  Jew  expected  nothing  less. 
Be  that  as  it  may,  however,  the  phenomenal  majorities  of 
Tammany  Hall  were  almost  entirely  annihilated  and  the 
Russian  Jew  —  this  time  justly  —  may  claim  the  lion's 
share  in  the  result  of  the  municipal  election  of  .1901.  The 
Second,  Fourth,  Eighth,  Tenth,  Twelfth  and  Sixteenth  As 
sembly  Districts,  which  in  former  years  ran  up  insur 
mountable  Tammany  majorities,  showed  such  a  remarkable 
change  that  the  other  districts  in  the  city  normally  in 
favor  of  reform  movements  had  an  easy  task.  Many  have 
claimed  the  credit  for  this  remarkable  performance;  few 
care  to  see  the  facts  of  the  case.  To  the  Russian  Jew,  with 
a  mind  quick  to  grasp  simplp,  business  propositions,  this 
problem  of  municipal  reform  was  a  very  simple  matter. 
They  all  remembered  the  first  abortive  effort  at  reform  un 
der  the  Strong  administration  with  its  few  cases  of  good 
work  accomplished  among  the  desert  of  promises  unper 
formed  and  unfulfilled.  They  all  remembered  and  suf 
fered  during  the  era  of  night  under  Tammany's  regime 
from  1897  to  1901.  Given  this  contrast,  placed  before  the 
Russian  Jew  in  a  clear  and  intelligent  manner,  those  who 


258  POLITICS 

knew  him  had  neither  fear  nor  doubt  as  to  which  course 
he  would  pursue. 

Perhaps  the  most  remarkable  phenomenon  of  this  cam 
paign  was  the  revelation  of  the  Russian  Jew  as  an  active 
campaigner.  He  was  not  content  with  voting  for  the  right 
cause  alone; — he  appropriated  every  street  corner,  every 
hall,  every  truck,  every  temporary  platform  in  the  various 
districts,  and  for  an  entire  month  called  upon  the  passer 
by  to  hear  his  reasons  for  supporting  the  fusion  ticket. 
Young  and  old,  these  speakers,  in  English,  in  German, 
and  in  all  the  Jargon  dialects  conceivable,  thundered 
against  the  iniquities  of  Tammany  Hall  and  conducted  a 
campaign  the  like  of  which  New  York  had  not  seen.  They 
demonstrated  for  all  time  that  the  Russian  Jewish  vote 
is  a  factor  to  be  reckoned  with. 

Perhaps  the  most  interesting  phenomenon  that  has 
challenged  our  attention  in  recent  years  is  the  appearance 
of  the  rapidly  developing  types  of  Russian  Jewish  poli 
ticians.  From  year  to  year  they  have  progressed  along 
the  various  lines.  Whether  as  district  captains,  election 
watchers,  ballot  clerks,  campaign  orators,  they  are  becom 
ing  as  distinct  types  as  the  Irish,  the  German,  or  the  Yan 
kee  politicians. 

To  them  the  problems  of  the  ever-changing  ballot  laws 
are  simple  in  the  extreme.  So  well  are  they  informed  as 
to  the  provisions  of  these  that  results  in  their  districts  are 
tabulated  as  accurately  as  in  the  most  enlightened  sections, 
and  their  election  officers  perform  all  their  work  with  the 
same  speed  and  accuracy  as  do  the  ballot  clerks  and  elec 
tion  officers  of  other  neighborhoods. 

As  is  but  natural,  in  course  of  time  these  young  as 
pirants  for  political  preferment  pass  through  a  process 
of  crystallization,  and  the  efficient  district  captains  and 
election  clerks  of  two  or  three  years'  experience  become 
budding  leaders  in  the  various  localities  of  the  Ghetto  as 
sembly  districts.  Their  development  is  gradual  and  in 
teresting.  The  Russian  Jewish  young  man,  generally  a 
lawyer,  who  casts  his  fortunes  with  Tammany  Hall,  grad 
ually  assumes  the  habits  of  his  Tammany  confreres.  He 
chews,  smokes,  drinks,  gambles,  visits  the  club-rooms  re 
ligiously,  attends  the  politico-social  functions  of  the  year, 
is  prominent  in  the  purchase  and  dissemination  of  chow 
der  tickets,  and  is  rewarded,  perhaps,  by  being  permitted 
to  play  at  the  Tammany  chowder  game  of  poker  with  the 


NEW  YORK  259 

elite  of  the  district.  He  is  gradually  taken  into  the  con 
fidence  of  the  assembly  district  leader,  in  most  cases  called 
the  "  old  man/'  and  from  time  to  time  becomes  the  re 
cipient  of  some  political  news  emanating  directly  from 
the  fountain  head  of  Tammany  Hall  Democracy  —  the 
Democratic  Club  —  or  Tammany  Hall  proper.  In  time 
this  aspiring  politician  becomes  the  constant  companion 
of  the  leader,  and  at  all  dinners,  meetings  or  functions 
acts  as  the  host  and  direct  personal  representative  of  the 
all-powerful  leader.  For  the  leader  in  his  bailiwick  is  su 
preme,  and  to  be  in  touch  with  him  is  to  become  in  course 
of  time  a  political  power.  If  the  young  aspirant  is  faith 
ful,  the  leader  delegates  a  measure  of  his  authority  to  his 
new  fledgling,  who,  encouraged  by  the  tokens  of  apprecia 
tion  on  the  part  of  his  political  sponsor,  begins  to  see 
visions  of  power  and  is,  possibly,  led  to  aspire  to  the  lead 
ership  himself.  In  a  few  instances,  such  young  men  get 
the  nominations  for  the  minor  elective  offices. 

Usually  this  is  done  only  to  test  their  fealty,  for  they 
are  expected  to  stick  to  the  organization  in  victory  as  well 
as  in  defeat.  The  many  unsuccessful  aspirants  for  elec 
tive  office  try  to  find  consolation  in  appointments  such  as 
positions  in  the  corporation  counsel's  and  district  attor 
ney's  offices.  So  great  has  been  the  crop  of  candidates 
for  these  offices  of  late  years,  that  in  every  assembly  dis 
trict  we  find  the  young  men  organizing  independent  Dem 
ocratic  clubs,  generally  bearing  the  name  of  the  founder, 
for  the  purpose  of  demonstrating  how  great  a  vote  they 
can  command  and  thus  either  compelling  recognition  from 
the  organization  or,  in  case  of  failure,  forcing  their  way 
into  the  regular  organization  of  opposite  political  faith. 
They  have  but  one  ambition,  and  that  is  to  attain  judicial 
position,  and  to  attain  it  they  seek  election  as  assembly 
man  or  alderman  as  a  stepping  stone. 

As  a  rule,  these  young  Russian  Jewish  men  who  make: 
their  way  into  Tammany  Hall  belong  to  a  lower  order.  In 
some  cases  the  office  holders  are  taken  from  the  most  color 
less  class,  having  nothing  but  regularity  and  party  fealty 
as  their  redeeming  features.  Usually,  their  education  has 
ended  with  the  completion  of  a  course  in  the  public  schools. 
From  that  time  they,  mutatis  mutandis,  are  close  readers 
of  the  Daily  News,  the  World,  and  the  Journal,  and  keep 
"  posted  "  on  all  political  questions.  Add  to  this  the 
mellowing  influences  of  the  Tammany  leaders'  discourse 


260  POLITICS 

and  society,  and  the  young  men  are  fit  for  any  office  within 
the  gift  of  the  "  people. " 

The  Republican  Jewish  politician  is  another  remarkable 
product  of  the  metropolis.  Socially  he  is,  perhaps,  a  grade 
higher  than  the  former ;  his  parents,  by  dint  of  hard  work, 
have  amassed  a  comfortable  fortune,  and  their  offspring 
has  possibly  had  the  benefit  of  a  better  preliminary  educa 
tion  and  has  come  in  contact  with  wealthier  young  men, 
who  are  Republicans  in  their  political  affiliations.  He, 
like  his  Tammany  Hall  cousin,  is  a  growth  gradual  in 
development,  but  is  as  positive  a  character  as  the  former. 
A  little  more  credit  may  be  due  to  him  by  reason  of  the  fact 
that  his  party  is  rarely,  if  ever,  in  power  in  the  city  of 
New  York  and  most  of  his  political  "  patronage  "  consists 
of  promises,  conditioned  upon  its  success  and  the  disrup 
tion  and  defeat  of  Tammany  Hall,  a  hope  upon  which 
every  Republican  spellbinder  loves  to  dwell.  The  fact  that 
the  state  or  national  elections  generally  are  favorable  to 
his  party  makes  small  difference,  as  little  or  nothing  per 
colates  from  the  state  or  national  board  to  these  dreamers 
of  the  Ghetto.  A  picturesque  character  this  young 
"  statesman  "  undoubtedly  is.  From  early  citizenship 
he  carries  himself  like  a  "  statesman."  He  believes  him 
self  treading  in  the  steps  of  Lincoln,  Grant,  Garfield,  and 
Elaine,  as  his  cousin  in  those  of  Jefferson,  Jackson,  Tilden, 
and  Cleveland.  His  garb,  his  features,  his  periods,  all 
savor  of  the  statesman  to  be.  Now  and  then  one  of  the 
more  inventive  discovers  that  a  page  of  Macaulay  would 
fit  into  some  stirring  appeal  and  the  speech  or  essay  or 
paragraph  is  pressed  into  service  and  is  sent  resounding 
from  a  truck  or  platform  over  the  heads  of  a  host  of  boys 
who  for  the  time  being  become  ' '  fellow  citizens. ' '  The 
youngsters  thus  get  their  first  baptism  of  political  elo 
quence  from  these  campaigners. 

The  Republican  Russian  Jewish  politician  gains  admis 
sion  into  the  counsels  of  his  party  more  readily  than  the 
Democratic.  The  power  of  the  district  leader  is  not  so 
absolute  as  that  of  the  Tammany  man  and  the  young  men 
become  members  of  the  County  Committee;  some  have 
even  been  known  to  raise  their  voices  in  that  august  as 
sembly  of  archons  of  the  local  Republican  party.  In  one 
or  two  cases  revolt  is  ripe  against  the  "  carpet-bag 
ger  "  Republican  leader.  In  time  two  or  three  Republi- 


NEW  YORK  261 

can  and  Democratic  assembly  district  leaders  will  be  none 
other  than  the  young  Russian  Jewish  politicians. 

There  is  another  political  factor  in  the  Ghetto  which 
must  not  be  lost  sight  of.  In  some  respects  this  is  the  / 

most  remarkable  of  all.  I  refer  to  the  Socialists.  As  a  \J 
rule  the  Socialist  leaders  are  students,  whose  collegiate 
course  has  been  prematurely  cut  off  by  reason  of  migra 
tions  caused  by  anti-Semitism,  or  economic  distress.  After 
a  short  apprenticeship,  either  as  a  peddler  or  mechanic 
or  unskilled  worker  at  one  of  the  trades,  he  quickly  regains 
his  equilibrium  and  —  as  has  often  been  the  case  —  man 
ages  to  complete  his  studies  in  one  of  the  colleges  or  uni 
versities,  of  this  city.  Rarely,  if  ever,  has  another  na 
tionality  furnished  so  many  splendid  examples  of  the 
hard  working  student  who  prosecutes  his  studies  while 
undergoing  great  privations  in  his  efforts  to  support  not 
only  himself,  but  in  many  cases  the  family  as  well. 

Regardless  of  what  his  privations  may  be,  he  throws 
himself  into  the  study  of  literature,  poetry  and  political 
economy  and  becomes  a  powerful  debater  or  excellent 
journalist.  One  or  two  such  bid  fair  to  rival  our  ablest 
editors  and  campaign  speakers.  They  are  generally  good 
Hebrew  and  Russian  scholars  and  are  able  to  draw  upon 
the  literatures  of  these  languages  to  make  their  arguments 
acceptable  and  clear  to  all. 

The  noblest  type  which  has  of  late  become  general  is 
the  Russian  Jewish  mugwump ;  the  man  who  votes  and 
thinks  upon  the  highest  planes  of  civic  patriotism  without 
regard  to  political  preferment.  As  a  rule,  he  is  not  a 
candidate  for  office,  is  either  a  professional  or  business 
man,  and  helps  to  form  the  great  silent  vote  which  in  the 
last  few  years  has  upset  the  calculations  of  the  wiseacres 
of  all  political  parties.  His  class  are  the  people  who  vote 
"  split  tickets,"  who  examine  the  characters  of  the  candi 
dates,  and  who  thus  sway  the  power  from  party  to  party 
as  desert  and  political  virtue  are  divided.  These  form  the 
great  portion  of  the  uncontrollable  and  unapproachable 
vote  of  the  Ghetto;  so  much  so  that  word  goes  forth  from 
both  political  camps  that  time  spent  on  attempted  con 
version  of  such  voters  is  time  wasted.  This  class  furnishes 
the  most  valuable  election  officers  and  campaign  speakers 
and  the  most  promising  guarantees  of  the  ultimate  com 
plete  redemption  of  the  Ghetto  from  the  influence  of  the 
machines.  The  arts  of  the  older  parties,  which  their  de- 


262  POLITICS 

votees  have  studied  for  a  lifetime,  these  progressive  young 
voters,  and  for  that  matter  the  old  ones  as  well,  have  mas 
tered  in  a  remarkably  short  time.  The  young  people, 
aided  by  such  journals  as  the  Times  and  the  Evening  Post, 
and  the  older  people  by  the  German  and  Jewish  news 
papers,  have  become  adepts  in  discussing  municipal  ques 
tions  and  really  form  the  most  formidable  menace  to  the 
continuance  of  Tammany  rule.  No  audience  in  the  city 
is  quicker  to  grasp  the  questions  at  issue.  Also  no  speaker 
is  better  informed  or  better  prepared  by  example,  quo 
tation  and  explanation  than  the  middle-aged  Ghetto  orator. 
He  resorts  to  comparatively  few  devices  of  voice  or  diction. 
With  examples  drawn  either  from  daily  life  or  Biblical 
lore  he  brings  home  an  argument  to  an  intelligent  audience 
more  forcibly  than  do  his  younger  and  more  progressive 
sons.  He  cares  little  for  their  political  veneer.  He  is  a 
plain  spoken  advocate  of  clean  streets,  parks,  public  schools, 
and  honest  police,  and  prates  not  of  the  immortal  principle 
of  the  democracy  of  Jefferson  and  Jackson,  as  do  his 
younger  descendants. 

The  following  editorial  from  the  Nation  of  December  1, 
1904,  confirms  the  observations  of  the  writer:  "  It  is 
clear  .  .  .  that  our  Jews  and  Southern  Europeans  do 
vote.  A  more  important  question,  however,  is  whether  they 
vote  with  discrimination.  Do  they  always  support  the 
same  parties;  do  they  ever  vote  split  tickets?  A  study  of 
the  returns  for  the  last  four  years  —  including  those  for 
the  November  elections  —  shows  that  there  are  only  eight 
assembly  districts  in  Manhattan  which,  in  both  local,  State, 
and  national  elections,  do  not  invariably  go  one  way.  They 
are  Manhattan's  *  doubtful  districts,'  which  are  appar 
ently  influenced  by  argument,  and  which  may  be  expected 
to  split  their  tickets.  They  are  the  Fifth,  the  Eighth,  the 
Tenth,  the  Sixteenth,  the  Twenty-first,  the  Twenty-third, 
the  Twenty-ninth,  and  the  Thirty-first.  Some  of  these  are 
only  slightly  independent;  the  Twenty-ninth,  for  instance, 
gets  into  this  good  company  simply  because,  this  year,  it 
voted  for  Eoosevelt  and  Herrick.  The  average  foreign 
population  of  these  independent  districts  is  42  per  cent.,  or 
just  about  the  average  for  the  whole  island.  Chiefly  im 
portant,  however,  is  the  fact  that  this  list  includes  the 
Eighth,  the  Tenth,  and  the  Sixteenth  Assembly  Districts. 
These  are  also  situated  south  of  Eleventh  Street  and  east 
of  the  Bowery. 


NEW  YORK  263 

' '  By  all  odds  the  most  interesting  is  the  Eighth.  This  is 
the  district  with  the  largest  foreign  population,  and  its 
population  is  very  largely  Jewish.  It  has  such  well-known 
Ghetto  streets  as  Hester,  Delancey,  Eldridge,  and  Allen. 
Yet  politically  it  is  one  of  the  most  uncertain  sections ;  the 
majority  of  the  winning  candidates  is  always  small.  It 
voted  for  Bryan  in  1900 ;  for  Roosevelt  in  1904 ;  for  Coler 
in  1902;  for  Higgins  this  year.  Its  representative  at  Al 
bany  is  alternatively  a  Republican  and  a  Democrat.  The 
Tenth  District,  which  also  shows  unmistakable  signs  of  in 
dependence,  is  strongly  Jewish.  This  year  it  voted  for 
Roosevelt  and  Herrick.  The  Sixteenth,  which  also  divided 
on  State  and  national  lines,  is  populated  almost  exclusively 
by  Jews  from  Austria-Hungary.  Similar  independence  is 
evidenced  in  districts  largely  native,  such  as  the  Fifth,  the 
Twenty-first,  and  the  Twenty-third;  but  at  least  it  is  plain 
that  the  Jewish  localities,  chiefly  recruited  from  immigra 
tion,  are  not  lacking  in  the  first  essentials  of  good  citizen 
ship." 

It  is  but  natural  that  so  many  shades  of  political  leader 
ship  should  lead  to  the  creation  of  political  organizations. 
In  most  instances,  these  are  ephemeral  and  rarely  survive 
a  fatal  election.  Even  in  case  of  success  at  the  polls  they 
usually  survive  just  long  enough  to  provide  a  number  of 
the  ambitious  with  berths  at  the  public  crib.  On  the  other 
hand,  some  have  builded  better  than  they  knew,  and  have 
become  powerful  political  bodies  to  the  extent  of  either 
carrying  the  assembly  district  for  good  government  or 
gradually  making  such  inroads  into  the  vote  of  the  dom 
inant  party  that  success  is  but  a  question  of  time.  The 
leaders  of  such  political  organizations  have  in  a  few  in 
stances  received  recognition  from  the  party  of  good  govern 
ment. 

Perhaps  no  other  phase  of  this  discussion  can  be  ap 
proached  with  more  certainty  than  the  problem  of  deter 
mining  whether  the  Russian  Jewish  vote  is  controllable. 
Inquiry  as  to  how  votes  are  acquired  or  controlled  by 
illegitimate  or  questionable  means  will  demonstrate  the  con 
tention  that  the  Ru^an  JgwisJ^jasfco  is  noitliftp-contrellable 
nor  tuiDeliasa_ble.  The  xlussian  Jewish  citizens  as  a  body 
are  not  an  office  seeking  or  office  holding  class.  They  have 
but  few  representatives  in  departments  not  under  civil 
service  regulations.  The  civil  service  protected  officers 
carry  with  them  independence  in  voting.  The  offices  whose 


264  POLITICS 

occupants  change  with  each  administration  are  sought  for 
by  all  but  Russian  Jewish  voters.  Candidates  for  such 
offices  are  the  habitues  of  the  Tammany  assembly  district 
clubs  —  the  saloon  brigade  of  candidates  for  office,  who 
drink  with  every  newcomer.  The  Russian  Jewish  citizen 
will  have  none  of  the  inferior  positions,  such  as  those  in 
the  street  cleaning  or  dock  department,  nor  are  there  Rus 
sian  Jewish  laborers  in  the  department  of  parks  or  public 
works.  The  higher  offices  of  these  departments  are  not  yet 
within  his  reach  and  he  therefore  concludes  to  wait  his 
chance.  Meanwhile,  he  continues  to  demonstrate  his  fit 
ness,  his  ability,  his  readiness,  to  pass  civil  service  examina 
tions  such  as  are  imposed  by  the  post  office  and  custom 
house. 

The  club  and  the  saloon  are  the  marts  where  voters  are 
either  "  influenced  "  or  bought  outright.  The  class  of 
votes  obtained  in  the  latter  place  are  rather  risky  "  invest 
ments  ' '  in  these  days  of  the  secret  ballot.  For  he  who  sells 
his  vote  may  nevertheless  go  into  the  booth  and  vote  as  his 
fl  conscience  "  dictates.  As  to  the  former  method,  most 
/Russian  Jewish  citizens  are  an  industrious  class,  and  think 

\J  more  of  earning  an  honest  livelihood  than  of  bartering 
their  votes  for  cash. 

One  need  but  examine  the  registration  lists  of  a  single 
assembly  district,  as  the  writer  has  done,  to  convince  him 
self  that  the  Russian  Jew  is  very  much  in  earnest  where 
politics  are  concerned.  The  overwhelmingly  Republican 
districts,  the  best  and  wealthiest  in  the  city,  have  an  alarm 
ingly  large  number  of  citizens  who  neither  register  nor 
vote.  An  even  larger  proportion  of  those  who  register  do 
not  vote.  To  the  Russian  Jew  the  day  of  election  is  not 
a  holiday  in  the  sense  that  he  is  to  have  his  annual  ex 
cursions  or  trips  of  recreation  out  of  the  city.  Many  days 
before  election,  he  informs  himself  as  to  the  merits  of  the 
respective  candidates,  by  attending  meetings,  reading 
papers,  and  by  discussion  at  his  cafe  or  after  his  lodge 
meetings.  When  election  day  arrives  he  has  made  up  his 
mind  how  to  vote  and  he  does  vote,  neither  pleasure  nor 
business  exigency  preventing  him.  A  great  many  other 

\l  citizens  of  foreign  extraction  mistake  election  day  and  turn 
it  into  a  riotous  feast,  to  the  discomfiture  of  the  election   . 
officers,  who  find  it  difficult  to  cope  with  the  curious  in 
ventions  of  the  Bacchanalians  that  wield  the  power  of  the 
ballot  in  the  secrecy  of  the  election  booth.     Not  so  with 


NEW  YORK  265 

the  Russian  Jew.  He  does  not  drink  anything  stronger 
than  tea  before  he  votes  and  after  he  has  voted  he  goes 
about  his  business  without  celebrating  or  rioting.  Com 
pared  with  the  American  cycling,  golfing,  automobiling, 
and  football  fraternity,  who  either  intentionally  forget  or 
do  not  care  for  the  issues  and  principles  at  stake,  the  Rus 
sian  Jew  is  certainly  an  excellent  example  of  new  citizen 
ship. 

A  most  important  factor  in  the  political  development 
of  the  Russian  Jew  has  been  the  Jewish  press.  Although 
published  and  for  the  most  part  sold  on  the  lower  East 
Side,  the  Yiddish  papers  have  reached  the  remotest  corners 
of  the  country. 

The  oriental  substratum  in  the  mind  of  Russian  Jews 
must  be  appealed  to  in  a  different  manner  from  that  of 
the  humdrum,  every  day,  political  intelligence  of  the  voter 
who  is  swayed  by  newspaper  reading.  The  Russian  Jew 
examines  with  the  eye  of  a  critic  the  arguments  presented 
on  the  editorial  page.  He  who  would  convince  him  must 
put  forth  his  best  efforts.  The  Russian  Jew  is  witty  by 
nature  and  appreciates  the  political  diatribes  which  are 
placed  before  him  by  these  many  advocates  of  heterogene 
ous  factions.  There  is  a  novelty,  a  charm,  an  ingenuity 
about  these  papers  on  political  questions. 

No  matter  htr^'atteplsifote  Jew  may  be  and 

no  matter  haw. true.. the, statement  that  no  party  can  claim 
him  to  the  exclusioiLjiL  others,  still  it  is  a  fact  daily  more 
and  more  apparent,  that  the  independent  reform  element 
on  municipal  questions  has  become  a  most  alarming  sign  of 
the  times  in  the  political  parties.  The  younger  element 
who  have  had  a  college  or  university  education  form  the 
hotbeds  of  independent  voting  and  reform  ideas.  As  this 
class  is  growing  larger  year  by  year  they  will  certainly 
have  to  be  reckoned  with  by  every  party  which  has  success 
at  the  polls  as  one  of  its  objects. 

If  the  proportion  of  Russian  Jewish  electors  to  the  total 
vote  be  a  consideration  for  assigning  public  office  to  the 
representatives  of  any  particular  class,  the  Russian  Jews 
are  far  behind  all  others  in  the  distribution  of  offices. 
Even  if  we  include  the  elective  offices  they  receive  much 
the  smallest  share  of  party  patronage.  While  it  is  true 
that  whatever  positions  are  distributed  among  them  are 
generally  positions  of  importance,  still  most  of  these  they 
attain  by  competitive  examination,  which  in  recent  years 


266  POLITICS 

has  really  taken  the  vast  majority  of  offices  from  the  gift 
of  the  party  in  power.  It  is,  therefore,  to  the  elective 
office  or  confidential  appointive  ones  that  we  must  direct 
our  attention.  In  the  Federal  service,  if  we  exclude  a 
number  of  specialists  or  statisticians,  there  are  none. 
These,  too,  are  civil  service  appointments.  As  to  those 
elected  to  office,  our  field  of  vision  is  of  necessity  limited  by 
the  fact  that  the  Russian  Jew  has  graduated  but  a  very 
few  of  such  office-holders.  An  alderman,  here  and  there, 
two  or  three  assemblymen,  probably  one  justice  and  a  dep 
uty  district  attorney,  and  perhaps  a  deputy  cor 
poration  counsel,  and  the  list  is  complete.  Taken  all 
in  all,  these  elected  representatives  of  the  Eussian  Jew 
are  not  brilliant  examples  of  what  they  have  produced  by 
way  of  good  citizenship.  For  in  those  firstlings  of  elected 
officers  party  spirit  is  developed  to  an  alarming  degree  and 
in  most  cases  they  simply  register  the  fiat  or  party  caucuses 
with  as  scrupulous  care  and  obedience  as  the  most  thorough 
going  machine  men.  Small  wonder,  then,  that  in  one  case, 
when  a  little  independence  was  about  to  be  developed  the 
bold  office-holder  was  promptly  called  to  account  and  with 
the  fatality  of  the  punishment  of  the  Mafia  the  victim  was 
denied  renomination  and  his  usefulness  in  the  office  held 
was  forthwith  dispensed  with  —  all  because  of  a  too  ready 
desire  to  air  his  opinion  and  discuss  questions  which  were 
simply  to  be  voted  upon.  The  machine  resents  nothing  so 
much  as  disobedience  in  any  form.  The  elective  office 
holder  is  but  one  small  wheel  in  the  scheme  of  machine 
government.  All  that  he  is  expected  to  do  is  to  obey  and 
to  vote;  to  talk,  unless  requested  so  to  do,  means  political 
annihilation. 

It  is  yet  too  early,  however,  to  judge  the  Eussian  'Jewish 
office-holder  of  either  kind.  We  have  witnessed  but  the 
earliest  beginning  of  such  careers.  The  college  and  uni 
versity  men  are  still  in  the  early  twenties  and  have  not 
yet  had  an  opportunity  to  be  put  upon  their  mettle. 
Another  ten  years  will  witness  the  elevation  to  office  of  some 
of  these  young  men ;  they  will  compare  favorably  with  other 
candidates  of  the  older  parties,  having  a  fundamental  edu 
cation  that  will  aid  them  materially  in  their  preparation 
for  the  public  office  which  they  are  bound  to  occupy. 

Time  was  when  a  great  portion  of  Eussian  Jews  could 
be  found  in  the  Socialist  and  Anarchist  camps.  The  So 
cialist  party  in  particular  had  its  remarkable  leaders  and 


NEW  YORK  267 

editors,  who  made  such  noteworthy  strides  in  these  sec 
tions  of  the  city  that  their  party  spread  to  almost  every 
state  of  the  Union.  Their  emissaries  organized  the  party 
in  every  state.  The  Anarchist  elements  at  one  time  num 
bered  among  its  hosts  a  number  of  Russian  Jewish  immi 
grants  fresh  from  the  country  where  they  had  been  op 
pressed.  But  as  time  went  on,  as  prosperity  dawned  on 
them,  they  gradually  drifted  by  way  of  the  Socialist  party 
into  temporary  political  obscurity,  only  to  reappear  in  one 
or  the  other  political  parties.  The  Socialist  Labor  party  at 
one  time  was  the  third  largest  party  in  the  city.  By  reason 
of  the  Social  Democratic  schism,  its  numbers  have  been  deci 
mated  and  we  have  ardent  DeLeonites  combating  still  more 
ardent  followers  of  Debs  with  even  greater  bitterness  than 
they  do  the  other  parties.  The  two  sections  of  the  Socialist 
party  today  are  each  firmly  held  together  by  rigid  plat 
forms,  containing  very  nearly  all  their  declarations  of  be 
lief  and  articles  of  creed.  But  they  have  yet  to  demon 
strate  that  they  will  ever  wield  any  power  in  the  city  as  a 
whole.  In  one  or  two  assembly  districts  they  are  ripe  for 
the  election  of  either  an  assemblyman  or  alderman  or  both. 
But  the  Socialist  assemblyman  or  alderman  pure  and  simple 
is  as  yet  a  figment  of  the  imagination,  although  in  a  num 
ber  of  instances  the  candidates  are  of  so  high  a  character 
that  their  possible  election  could  be  considered  as  much  of 
a  personal  tribute  as  an  experiment  in  having  a  Socialist 
in  office.  It  cannot  be  denied,  however,  that  small  as  it  is, 
the  Socialist  party  has  mastered  the  principles  of  active, 
nay,  of  aggressive  campaigning,  and  its  leaders  are  re 
markably  able  orators  and  debaters,  and  explain  and  enun 
ciate  the  principles  for  which  they  stand  in  a  manner  sec 
ond  to  none  of  the  speakers  of  the  other  political  parties. 

And  so  the  stream  of  Russian  Jewish  citizens  grows 
through  constant  accretion,  naturalization  as  well  as  by  the 
coming  of  age  of  the  younger  immigrants  who  have  been 
educated  in  this  country.  Each  day  has  its  number  of 
these  industrious  craftsmen  or  business  men  both  at  the 
state  courts  and  Federal  courts.  To  many  understanding 
of  the  mysteries  of  English  chirography  and  reading  have 
been  denied.  And  though  old  and  decrepit,  many  of  these 
men  have  toiled. two  a.rid  throe  tor-ma  at-the-fijZjgnmg  schools 

Of  t.]iA  mty  cfrfl.fhia.ny  p rpp a ri ^ p;  ±b^nTg^Tv^~Fn T^^^c^p 

An  examination  will  disclose  hundreds  of  newly  made 
citizens  weekly.  A  new  trade  has  sprung  up  in  the  Jewish 


268  POLITICS 

bookstores;  thousands  and  thousands  of  civil  service  and 
citizenship  manuals  are  annually  printed  and  sold  for  the 
purpose  of  enabling  immigrants  to  be  admitted  to  citizen 
ship. 

It  is  not  possible  even  approximately  to  guess  at  the 
number  of  Russian  Jewish  voters  in  this  city.  With  the 
American  education  and  citizenship  come  also  in  many 
cases  the  desire  to  Americanize  the  names,  yea,  even  the 
first  names  of  their  owners.  When  Tultchinsky  becomes 
Anthony;  Tonkinogy  Thomas;  Tabatehnikoff  Tobias,  and 
Tamashefsky  O'Brien  or  McCarthy,  the  city  record  con 
taining  a  list  of  voters  may  tell  a  deceitful  story. 

Perhaps  the  most  difficult  problem  that  could  be  set 
before  an  observer  of  these  children  of  the  Ghetto  is  to  form 
a  true  estimate  of  their  character  as  citizens.  Some  opin 
ions  have  the  ravings  of  anti-Semitism  as  their  sole  inspira 
tion  ;  those  who  hold  them  see  nothing  in  this  host  of  newly 
made  citizens  save  miscreants,  and  if  there  be  brilliant  ex 
amples  these  generous  critics  regard  them  merely  as  excep 
tions  to  the  rule  previously  laid  down.  On  the  other  hand, 
such  impartial  observers  as  Jacob  A.  Riis,  Ida  M.  Van 
Etten  and  others  have  sent  forth  into  the  world  different 
opinions  of  these  Russian  Jewish  citizens.  Thus : 

"  Politically  the  Jews  possess  many  characteristics  of  the 
best  citizens.  Their  respect  and  desire  for  education  make 
them  most  unlikely  to  follow  an  ignorant  demagogue,  while 
for  a  still  deeper  and  more  radical  reason  they  make  the 
enlightened  selfishness  their  standard  of  all  political  worth. 
The  centuries  during  which  every  conscious  or  unconscious 
tendency  of  the  government,  under  which  they  lived,  has 
been  to  make  their  individual  and  race  advancement  their 
single  object  have  developed  traits  of  character  most  unfa 
vorable  to  that  blind  partisanship  which  is  requisite  for  the 
successful  carrying  out  of  the  objects  of  political  organiza 
tions  like  Tammany  Hall.  The  education  given  by  the 
modern  labor  movement  has,  in  a  great  degree,  transformed 
their  race-feeling  into  a  class-feeling  and  they  now  look 
with  zeal  to  the  advancement  of  the  working  people,  in 
whose  elevation  they  recognize  that  their  hope  for  the  fu 
ture  lies. 

"  The  one  or  two  Jewish  political  demagogues  who  strive 
to  create  a  following  on  the  East  Side  have  met  with 
doubtful  success.  In  fact,  there  does  not  exist  a  more  un 
promising  field  in  New  York  for  the  political  trickster  than 


NEW  YORK  269 

the  Jewish  quarters  of  the  city.  Their  quiet,  critical  analy 
sis  of  political  nostrums  is  most  disheartening  to  the  district 
leaders  of  Tammany  Hall."  1 

That  the  Russian  Jew  has  come  to  stay  is  conceded,  that 
his  influence  in  this  as  well  as  in  other  spheres  of  life  will 
have  to  be  reckoned  with,  is  equally  clear. 

1  Ida  M.  Van  Etten,  "  Russian  Jews  as  Desirable  Immigrants,"  Forum,  April, 
1893. 


(B)  PHILADELPHIA 

The  Russian  Jew  comes  from  a  country  where  despotism 
holds  sway,  where  he  has  had  little  chance  for  the  exercise 

political  privileges.  He  comes  here  with  a  tradition  so 
different  from  ours  that  at  first  he  is  bewildered  by  the 
political  conditions.  He  observes  contradictions  and  com 
plications.  His  spirit  is  foreign  to  the  American  and 
Anglo-Saxon,  which  seemingly  tolerates  many  abuses  until 
it  is  ready  to  act.  His  attitude  is  apt  to  be  cynical  or  in 
different;  and  in  either  case  he  may  fall  in  with  the  pre 
vailing  notions  of  politics,  with  all  that  they  imply.  Or  he 
may,  by  virtue  of  the  unsatisfactory  condition  of  his  eco 
nomic  life  and  because  of  an  idealism  typical  of  a  certain 
class  of  Russian  thinkers  be  in  constant  revolt  against  the 
powers  that  be,  actively  joining  in  the  meetings  and  demon 
strations  in  behalf  of  the  Anarchist  or  the  Socialist  cause, 
and  refraining  from  co-operation  with  the  regular  political 
parties.  If  the  Russian  Jew  is  a  young  man  born  on  Amer 
ican  soil,  or  one  who  came  here  at  an  early  age,  he  is  likely 
to  imbibe  the  American  and  Anglo-Saxon  tradition,  and 
may  be  like  the  ordinary  easy-going  American,  or  like  the 
American  who  "  is  in  it  for  all  it  is  worth,"  or  of  those 
who  are  fighting  for  reform,  or  finally,  among  those  who 
desire  an  entire  change  of  the  social  system. 

The  study  of  practical  politics  among  a  particular  class 
will  reveal  many  features  of  the  general  condition.  The 
large  American  cities  present  the  worst  sides  of  American 
practical  politics,  and  Philadelphia  stands  out  in  unholy, 
pre-eminent  glory  in  this  respect,  for  here  the  overwhelming 
control  by  politicians  of  both  state  and  city  have  made  pos 
sible  the  corruptions  of  politics  in  an  extreme  degree. 

Politics,  to  the  ordinary  American  mind,  imply  a  bus 
iness,  conducted  by  a  regularly  organized  band  who  have 
secured  control  of  public  offices,  public  franchises,  and 
public  influences  of  all  kinds,  and  use  them  for  their  per 
sonal  purposes,  and  for  extending  their  authority  as  non- 
official  controllers  of  the  public  purses  of  the  citizens.  He 

270 


PHILADELPHIA  271 

who  wishes  something  in  the  political  line  must  go  to  one 
of  this  band.  In  every  section  of  the  city,  in  the  various 
wards  and  divisions,  there  are  those  who  are  known  to  have 
a  ' '  pull. ' '  They  do  not  necessarily  hold  office ;  their  power 
depends  on  their  influence  in  the  political  organization. 
The  ordinary  American  citizen,  with  his  blind  worship  of 
party  politics,  bows  to  the  will  of  this  organization,  and  is 
subservient  to  its  leaders. 

Should  it  be  a  matter  of  surprise,  therefore,  that  the 
immigrant  from  Eussian  and  Eastern  Europe,  with  such 
a  conception  placed  before  him,  should  succumb  to  the 
temptations  to  which  many  a  so-called  American  citizen 
succumbs,  or  be  as  indifferent  to  political  effort  as  this  same 
American  citizen?  Can  it  be  a  matter  for  wonder  if  the 
teachers  of  practical  politics,  the  "  heelers, "  and  the 
"  rounders,"  are  such  as  we  allow  to  control  our  wards 
and  divisions,  that  they  graduate  from  their  schools  the 
promising  pupils  of  nationalities  and  classes  whose  votes 
and  influence  are  desired?  To  any  one  who  knows  our 
politics  as  conducted  it  must  be  clear  what  sort  of  tools  a 
politician  will  use,  and  we  consequently  find  a  coterie  of 
Russian  Jewish  workers  fully  as  unscrupulous  as  their 
leaders;  and  being  poor  men,  with  small  ways  for  the  low 
class  work  they  do,  their  actions  present  a  most  unlovely 
appearance.  But  from  the  point  of  view  of  public  morality 
they  are  not  worse  than  leaders  who  do  their  work  with  all 
the  semblance  of  decorum. 

The  wards  in  which  the  Russian  Jewish  population 
chiefly  resides  are  the  First,  Second,  Third,  Fourth  and 
Fifth,  covering  an  area  of  nearly  two  square  miles.  The 
boundaries  are,  Chestnut  Street  on  the  north  from  Dela 
ware  River  to  Seventh  Street;  the  Delaware  River  on  the 
East  to  the  foot  of  Mifflin  Street;  Mifflin  Street  on  the 
south  to  Passyunk  Avenue;  thence  north  along  Passyunk 
Avenue  to  Ellsworth  Street,  to  Broad  Street;  thence  with 
Broad  Street  as  the  western  boundary  to  South  Street; 
along  South  Street  to  Seventh  Street,  and  up  Seventh  to 
Chestnut  Street.  , 

It  should  be  noted  that  there  is  very  little  'Jewish  popu 
lation  in  the  northern  end  of  this  section  above  Spruce 
Street. 

The  number  of  votes  will  grow  not  only  because  of  in 
creased  naturalization  among  those  of  the  population  born 
abroad,  but  because  "of  the  young  men  coming  of  age.  It 


272  POLITICS 

must  be  borne  in  mind  that  we  are  considering  a  population 
which  began  to  migrate_to_this  cnnnt.Ty.-in~.to.iwi  numbers 
in"  1882,  "soTthat  only  in  1903  ^dJd_the_firs.t.  American-born 
descendants  oT  thliTiUam  body  frecomevoters.  All  others 

must   go  tnrnTlffi-tfar^^ 

There  was  a  second  large  stream  oF~  immigration  in  the 
early  nineties,  and  a  larger  naturalization  as  a  result  of 
this  has  doubtless  taken  place  in  the  last  few  years,  five 
years  being  required  for  the  acquiring  of  citizenship.  The 
younger  men,  born  abroad,  but  in  touch  with  our  institu 
tions,  naturally  proceed  to  become  naturalized  as  soon  as 
they  attain  the  age  of  twenty-one  years. 

In  national  politics  some  of  the  Russian  Jews  are  Re 
publicans,  some  Democrats,  and  some  Socialists.  With  the 
strongly  prevalent  Republican  party  sentiment  in  this  city 
one  would  naturally  expect  to  find  many  in  the  ranks  of 
this  party,  yet  there  was  a  strong  current  of  feeling  for 
Bryan  and  Debs  in  one  campaign.  In  the  Third  Con 
gressional  District  fight  for  a  seat  in  the  national  House 
of  Representatives,  many  took  an  active  part  for  McAleer, 
the  Democratic  incumbent,  who  was  running  for  re-election 
against  the  Republican  machine  candidate.  A  committee 
of  Jewish  representatives,  the  Hebrew  McAleer  Campaign 
Committee,  assisted  in  the  campaign,  and  a  number  of  meet 
ings  were  held  under  its  auspices. 

There  can  be  no  question  of  a  strong  Socialist  sentiment. 
When  a  prominent  Socialist  speaker  addresses  a  meeting 
he  can  count  upon  an  audience  of  fully  five  hundred  per 
sons.  The  Socialist  newspapers  are  read  in  goodly  num 
bers.  At  labor,  social  and  literary  gatherings,  Socialism 
is  an  active,  interesting  subject  of  discussion. 

I  have  been  much  impressed  with  the  nobility  of  purpose 
which  inspires  leading  Socialists  among  the  Russian  Jewish 
population.  The  ordinary  politician,  the  party  American, 
the  political  reformer  even,  may  regard  it  as  a  fanaticism,  a 
vain  striving  after  an  impossible  ideal.  And  yet  it  is  help 
ing  to  educate  the  community  in  social  responsibility;  it 
stands  for  a  purity  which  will  some  day  help  to  cleanse 
the  city  of  some  of  its  political  dirt.  Many  of  the  most 
Njitelligent  Russian  Jewish  men  and  women  are  Socialists. 
They  are  animated  by  a  strong  propagandist  spirit  and  are 
helpful  to  the  leaders  of  the  Socialist  cause. 

The  radical  and  reactionary  element  of  the  other  extreme 
is  the  Anarchist.  It  is  not  so  strong  in  numbers  as  the 


PHILADELPHIA  273 

Socialist.  Most  of  the  members  of  this  party  are  philosoph 
ical  Anarchists  and  not  the  red-handed  agitators  pictured 
by  the  newspapers. 

Mere  political  reform,  or  municipal  reform,  does  not  find 
much  favor.  I  remember  addressing  a  society  composed 
of  Russian  Jews  on  the  subject  of  political  reform,  and 
besides  giving  my  own  views  quoted  those  of  John  Jay 
Chapman.  I  was  told  in  the  discussion  which  followed  that 
the  description  of  the  political  disease  as  it  had  been  pre 
sented  was  as  strong  as  any  of  their  most  radical  members 
could  give,  but  the  remedy  was  ' '  Oh !  so  weak ;  it  was  like 
attempting  to  cure  a  thoroughly  diseased  body  with  a  por 
ous  plaster." 

I  was  not  surprised,  therefore,  to  find  that  there  was 
very  little  affiliation  with  the  independent  municipal  party, 
the  Municipal  League.  Here  again  they  were  not  different 
from  their  neighbors,  for  it  has  been  difficult  to  maintain 
Municipal  League  organizations  in  the  wards  to  which  our 
discussion  is  being  confined. 

The  Jews  of  older  residence  here,  those  of  the  immigra 
tions  before  the  Russian  migration  of  the  early  eighties, 
have  always  held  aloof  from  any  movement  looking  to  the 
concentration  of  a  so-called  Jewish  vote,  and  the  formation 
of  any  political  organization  composed  wholly  of  Jews. 
Such  organization  is  much  more  possible  among  the  Russian 
Jewish  population,  because  of  its  settlement  in  large  masses 
in  one  district,  with  a  community  interest  of  race  and  re 
ligion  intensified  by  close  social  union  and  mutual  responsi 
bilities  and  needs.  In  this  district  there  are  other  nation 
alities  which  form  distinct  groups,  such  as  the  Italians  and 
the  negroes.  There  are  also  Irish  and  Americans. 

The  Russian  Jews  have  not  voted  as  a  class  for  one  par 
ticular  party,  but  have  organized  distinctive  clubs  and 
committees  for  one  party  or  another.  The  objections  to 
such  organizations  are  well  set  forth  in  a  petition  to  the 
court  in  1895  against  the  granting  of  a  charter  to  the  Fourth 
Ward  Hebrew  Republican  Club.  It  stated  that  it  was  "  a 
racial  or  religious  political  club,"  that  it  was  "  against 
public  policy  in  that  it  tends  to  the  union  of  church  and 
state;"  that  its  objects  "  tend  to  introduce  religion  into 
politics  and  to  excite  racial  and  religious  prejudice." 
Adolph  Eichholz,  who  acted  as  attorney  for  the  objector, 
wrote  as  follows  to  the  counsel  of  the  club,  expressing  views 
generally  held  by  Jews  of  older  residence : 


274  POLITICS 

11  ...  Not  only  is  it  opposed  to  the  spirit  of  Amer 
ican  institutions  that  any  set  of  men  belonging  to  one 
race  or  to  one  religious  denomination  should  band  them 
selves  together  for  political  purposes,  but  it  is  also  reason 
ably  certain  that  the  members  of  such  organizations  will  be 
made  the  victims  of  unscrupulous  schemes.  One  of  the 
prime  motives  prompting  the  filing  of  these  exceptions  on 
the  part  of  a  co-religionist  is  a  solicitude  for  the  welfare 
of  the  misguided  members  and  prospective  members  of  this 
and  all  other  so-called  '  Hebrew  '  and  '  Jewish  '  political 
clubs.  The  organizers  of  such  clubs  are,  as  a  rule,  men 
who  for  their  own  selfish  ends,  use  this  means  of  impressing 
party  leaders  with  the  fact  that  they  control  a  large  number 
of  '  Hebrew  '  votes.  Organizations  formed  upon  such  lines 
must  necessarily  interfere  with  the  elevation  of  the  standard 
of  true  citizenship.  Hebrew  citizens  take  an  interest  in 
politics,  and  there  is  no  reason  why  they  should  not  do 
so  after  the  manner  of  all  other  citizens,  but  their  political 
activity  has  been  and  should  be  solely  and  purely  that  of 
good,  loyal,  and  patriotic  American  citizens  regardless  of 
what  may  have  been  the  country  of  their  birth  and  inde 
pendent  of  any  religious  belief  or  racial  connections. 

*  *  In  the  past  those  who  held  more  exalted  views  of  citi 
zenship  have  necessarily  been  limited  to  merely  persuading 
others  from  joining  such  anti- American  organizations. 
Now  that  judicial  approval  is  sought  it  becomes  a  duty  to 
interpose  more  formal  objections." 

That  the  agglomeration  of  masses  of  foreigners  into  sep 
arate  political  organizations  of  voters  is  subversive  of  their 
best  interests  as  citizens  there  can  be  no  doubt.  The  Rus 
sian  Jewish  element,  like  other  elements  of  foreign  origin  in 
the  down-town  section,  is  in  the  habit  of  working  unitedly 
and  finds  it  natural  to  form  political  clubs.  The  common 
religion  is  but  one  feature  that  differentiates  this  body  from 
the  rest  of  the  community;  and  the  effect  of  this  feature 
ought  not  to  be  exaggerated,  where  division  along  racial 
lines  in  the  lower  part  of  the  city  is  so  common. 

The  attempts  to  conduct  political  organizations  have  met 
with  obstacles  among  Russian  Jews,  because  of  individual 
ism  of  this  population,  which  owing  to  jealousies  constantly 
disrupts.  The  United  Citizens'  Club,  which  was  organized 
for  the  protection  of  Jewish  immigrants  and  citizens,  and 
which  has  a  membership  of  about  a  thousand,  participated 
in  the  campaign  of  the  winter  of  1904,  supporting  the  Dem- 


PHILADELPHIA  275 

ocratic  ticket.  During  active  political  campaigns  clubs  are 
organized,  but  when  the  excitement  of  the  campaign  dies 
out  the  interest  in  the  clubs  flags,  and  the  promoter  of  the 
club,  a  candidate  or  a  ward  leader,  often  finds  it  difficult 
to  maintain  it.  Some  of  the  clubs,  like  many  other  clubs, 
no  matter  what  the  class  of  its  members,  flourish  as  card- 
playing  concerns. 

The  Russian  Jewish  politician  has  been  able  to  gain  but 
little  in  party  power  in  this  city.  The  willing  tool  of  the 
political  boss,  he  bewails  the  fact  that  he  cannot  control 
a  large  Jewish  vote,  so  that  his  influence  will  be  stronger. 
As  a  division  "  heeler,"  he  controls  a  number  of  votes  and 
is  rewarded  with  some  petty  office,  or  opportunity,  which 
will  enable  him  to  "  squeeze  "  his  neighbors. 

Public  offices  held  by  this  population  are  insignificant  in 
importance  and  small  in  number.  They  include  a  member 
of  the  Board  of  Education,  two  common  councilmen,  several 
school  directors,  some  police  officers,  constables,  and  park 
employees.  The  negro  must  be  a  much  more  valuable 
political  worker  from  the  point  of  view  of  the  office  dis 
tributers,  for  of  170  city  employees  from  the  Fifth  Ward, 
when  inquiry  was  made  some  years  ago,  about  40  were 
negroes.1 

When  we  come  to  the  matter  of  a  controllable  vote,  the 
subject  is  difficult, —  that  is  to  say,  it  is  difficult  to  point  out 
which  element  of  our  entire  city  population  is  the  worst 
offender  in  this  respect.  The  Russian  Jews  doubtless  con 
tribute  a  quota.  Some  are  said  to  sell  their  votes  outright ; 
others  to  vote  according  to  the  instructions  of  the  police 
officials  who  protect  them  against  the  rigorous  enforcement 
of  ordinances.  For  example,  the  push  cart  dealers  and  ped 
dlers  must  have  licenses  and  are  required  to  be  kept  moving. 
Police  officials  can  exercise  their  "  discretion  "  if  a  peddler 
will  vote  as  they  direct.  The  dealer  who  has  his  shop  open 
on  Sunday  can  secure  protection  against  enforcement  of  the 
Sunday  law  if  he  is  "  in  with  "  the  police.  Many  a  prac 
tice  which  violates  the  law  can  be  connived  at  if  the  viola 
tor  will  vote  the  ' '  right  way. ' '  He  may,  in  addition,  have 
to  secure  "  immunity  "  through  other  considerations  as 
well.  The  system  of  illicit  protection  and  control  among 
this  population  does  not  differ  in  principle  from  that  in 
other  sections  of  the  city ;  it  merely  varies  according  to  the 
nature  of  the  business.  The  politicians  in  control  of  the 

»Du  Bois,  The  Philadelphia  Negro,  p.  381. 


276  POLITICS 

city  know  the  means  of  exploitation  available.  The 
Philadelphia  Ledger,  in  an  article  in  its  issue  of  De 
cember  11,  1904,  on  "  The  Organization  and  Extortion," 
contained  the  following:  "  The  small  dealers  along  South 
Street  and  Second  Street,  Germantown,  Frankford  and 
Kensington  Avenues  are  subjected  to  an  almost  perpetual 
demand  for  both  money  and  services.  In  the  Third  and 
Fifth  Wards  the  merchants  are  coerced  into  padding  the 
assessors'  lists;  to  recognize  non-resident  office-holders  as 
inmates  of  their  own  homes,  and  to  hand  up  money  regu 
larly  to  the  accredited  representatives  of  the  organization. 
They  get,  for  their  money  and  service,  the  right  to  use  the 
sidewalk  beyond  the  three-foot  line  for  displaying  their 
wares,  and  they  may  employ  barkers  without  fear  of  mo 
lestation.  The  toll  upon  these  merchants  ranges  all  the 
way  from  25  cents  to  $5  a  week  each.  The  same  applies  to 
push  cart  men  and  itinerant  peddlers,  who,  in  addition  to 
paying  the  usual  peddlers'  tax  to  the  city,  must  submit 
to  petty  larceny  at  the  hands  of  the  police,  who  take  all 
manner  of  small  wares  without  even  saying  '  by  your 
leave.'  The  money  and  goods  thus  taken  from  small  deal 
ers  and  peddlers  amounts  in  the  aggregate  to  thousands  of 
dollars  annually." 

The  Eussian  Jews  as  a  class  are  capable  of  political 
thought  far  superior  to  that  of  any  other  foreign  element 
which  the  slum  politician  seeks  to  control,  and  with  the 
growth  of  a  body  of  young  voters  who  are  coming  of  age 
the  intelligent  voting  population  will  become  stronger  and 
stronger.  These  young  men  are  showing  an  active  interest 
in  political  and  social  subjects,  and  if  their  present  interest 
is  any  indication  of  their  strength  of  action  as  voters  we 
may  look  to  a  vigorous  political  element.  If  they  realize 
their  opportunity  and  are  not  swamped  by  the  desire  for 
mere  material  success,  they  can  become  a  powerful  factor 
which  will  help  to  redeem  us  from  the  degradation  of  slum 
politics. 

Many  of  these  young  men,  brought  up  in  the  public 
schools,  living  to  a  considerable  degree  in  the  environment 
of  the  average  American,  imbued  with  the  spirit  of  patriot 
ism,  will  with  the  socialists  and  the  thinkers  of  the  older 
generation,  form  a  body  of  voters  possessing  a  high,  intel 
ligent  idea  of  citizenship.  They  will  have  a  principle  which 
will  place  them  in  the  van  with  those  who  are  working  for 
political  and  social  ideals. 


(0)  CHICAGO 

While  honor  is  said  to  be  the  underlying  principle  in  an 
aristocracy  and  fear  in  a  despotic  monarchy,  civic  virtue  is 
fundamental  in  a  republic.  The  citizen  who  is  fully  con 
scious  of  his  civic  duties  towards  his  government  and  his 
country,  who  is  willing  to  lay  aside  his  personal  interest  for 
the  greatest  good  of  the  greatest  number  of  his  fellow  citi 
zens,  is  the  citizen  who  preserves  our  freedom  and  institu 
tions,  and  so  long  as  there  is  a  majority  of  citizens  endowed 
with  that  sterling  quality  of  civic  virtue,  so  long  there  will 
be  no  danger  as  to  the  stability  of  our  republican  institu 
tions.  Our  naturalized  citizens,  coming  now  as  they  do, 
mostly  from  countries  where  either  despotism  or  pretended 
11  honor  "  is  the  basic  principle  of  government,  very  quick 
ly,  upon  becoming  citizens  here,  realize  their  new  respon 
sibilities,  which  inspire  them  with  loyalty  to  the  country 
of  their  adoption.  They  are  grateful  for... the  confidence 
reposed  in  thejiL^Jn_^hdng  them  a  share  in  the  administra 
tion  of  ou^-government. 

To  all  of_this^the  Russian  Jew  is  no  exception.  Having 
no  civil  rights. .in  Kussia^-Jia.. seizes-  the- -opportunity  given 
him  by  our  laws,  and  becomes  a  citizen  of  the  United  States. 
No  one  can^jm  the  average^  be  more  depended  upon  to 
vote  rij^tly_jm_al^  the  Russian^  Jew. 

Whereas  the  average  naturalized  citizen  leaves  behind  him 
a  country  where  his  race  predominates,  and  to  which  he 
could  return  in  safety  in  case  of  adversity,  the  Russian  Jew 
is  not  so  situated.  He  comes  here  to  stay.  To  him  this  is 
almost  the  only  country  that  offers  relief  and  shelter. 

The  Russian  Jew  in  America  is  well  pleased  with  the 
freedom  granted  him  and  has  not  looked  to  any  considerable 
extent  for  public  office  as  a  means  for  a  livelihood  or  pro 
motion.  In  the  city  of  Chicago,  and  county  of  Cook,  with 
a  Russian  Jewish  population  of  about  75,000  and  compris 
ing  not  less  than  18,000  voters,  only  a  handful  hold  public 
offices,  most  of  them  unimportant.  An  exception  is  that 
of  Mr.  Abel  Davis,  a  Russian  Jew,  who  was  elected  recorder 

277 


278  POLITICS 

of  deeds  in  the  election  of  November,  1904.  His  nomina 
tion  was  brought  about  by  Russian  Jewish  Republican 
clubs.  Mr.  Davis  was  a  lieutenant  in  the  Spanish- Ameri 
can  war,  and  saw  actual  service  in  Cuba.  He  was  for  one 
term  a  member  of  the  Illinois  legislature.  Other  officials 
include  deputy  health  inspector,  deputy  clerks  of  the  court 
and  recorder,  and  assistant  state's  attorney. 

There  is  good  prospect  that  in  the  future  the  Russian 
Jews  will  participate  at  the  primary  election  of  both  par 
ties  ;  they  will  endeavor  to  elect  their  own  delegates. 

The  Russian  Jews,  as  a  whole,  are  for  personal  liberty 
in  the  fullest  sense  of  the  word.  Believing  that  the  Demo 
cratic  party  can  be  more  trusted  in  safeguarding  the  per 
sonal  liberty  of  the  people,  and  fearing  a  revival  of  the 
Blue  Laws  in  Chicago,  they  generally  vote  the  Democratic 
ticket.  This  is  not,  however,  the  general  rule  in  congres 
sional  and  presidential  elections.  The  following  is  a  table 
of  the  votes  in  the  Ninth  Ward,  the  majority  of  which  have 
been  cast  by  Russian  Jews  since  the  year  1900. 1 

City  Election,  April  4,  1899:  For  Mayor— Carter,  Re 
publican,  2316;  Harrison,  Democrat,  3130;  Altgeld,  Inde 
pendent,  750;  Keroin,  Prohibitionist,  12. 

Presidential  Election,  November  6th,  1900 — McKinley, 
3034;  Bryan,  3591. 

City  Election,  April  2,  1901 :  For  Mayor— Henecy,  3088  ; 
Harrison,  3991. 

Congressional  and  County  Election,  November  4,  1902 : 
For  State  Treasurer — Busze,  Republican,  2853 ;  Duddleson, 
Democrat,  2946. 

At  the  city  election,  which  took  place  on  April  7th,  1903, 
Mayor  Harrison,  Democrat,  carried  the  ward  by  1679  ma 
jority  over  Stewart,  Republican. 

At  the  election  of  November,  1902,  a  very  notable  event 
took  place  in  the  17th  Senatorial  District,  largely  popu 
lated  by  Russian  Jews,  when  Clarence  S.  Darrow,  chief 
counsel  for  the  miners'  union  before  the  Anthracite  Coal 
Commission  at  Philadelphia,  was  elected  to  the  legislature 
by  a  majority  of  6000  on  an  independent  ticket. 

In  the  November,  1904,  election,  the  most  representative 
Russian  Jewish  ward,  the  Ninth,  was  carried  for  Roosevelt 
by  about  900  majority. 

1  The  Russian  Jewish  settlement  embraces  the  Ninth  Ward,  part  of  Tenth, 
part  of  Eleventh,  part  of  Nineteenth,  cart  of  Fourteenth,  Fifteenth,  Sixteenth. 


CHICAGO  279 

Socialism  does  not  flourish  to  any  considerable  extent 
among  the  Russian  Jews  in  Chicago.  Of  all  the  Russian 
Jewish  voters  throughout  the  city  only  about  500  cast 
Socialist  votes. 

The  new  generation  of  the  Russian  Jews  will  be  the 
Jews  of  America.  TJiey  will  lead_in  thought  and  morals. 
As  to  politics,  I  believe^they  will  safeguard 'The  interests 
of  the  people,  and  will  have  in  time  considerable  influence 
in  the  government  of  our  country. 


3        O 

II 
a  P 


IX 
HEALTH  AND  SANITATION 


HEALTH  AND  SANITATION 
U)  NEW  YORK 

Physically  the  Jews  appear  to  be  inferior  to  the  Anglo- 
Saxons  in  the  United  States.  They  are  about  five  feet  five 
inches  in  height  on  the  average,  which  is  more  than  the 
Jews  in  eastern  Europe  measure.  There,  it  was  found  that 
the  average  stature  of  the  Jews  was  about  five  feet  three 
to  five  feet  four  inches.  It  appears  that  the  immigrant 
Jews,  like  immigrants  of  other  races,  are  taller  than  the 
average  of  the  stock  from  which  they  come.  This  is  best 
explained  by  the  fact  that  it  is  mostly  the  taller  and  per 
haps  also  the  stronger  physically  who  venture  on  a  long 
journey  to  a  distant  land.  In  general  it  can  be  stated 
that  this  shortness  of  stature  of  the  Jews  is  primarily  due 
to  race  influence.  It  seems  that  the  ancient  Jews  were 
also  not  tall.  They  are  said  to  have  been,  compared  with 
the  Amorites,  sons  of  Anak,  as  "  grasshoppers  in  their  own 
sight."  It  has  also  been  shown  that  the  races  and  peoples 
among  whom  the  eastern  European  Jews  have  lived  for 
centuries,  are  mostly  of  a  short  stature,  as  for  instance,  the 
Slavonians  in  Russia,  Galicia,  and  Roumania.  Added  to 
this,  their  abject  poverty,  the  underfeeding,  the  insanitary 
conditions  of  the  European  Ghettos,  have  conspired  to  re 
duce  the  physique  of  the  Jew.  It  is  a  striking  fact  that 
wherever  they  have  been  given  a  chance  to  recuperate,  they 
have  gained  one  or  two  inches  of  stature.1  Thus  the  native 
Jews  in  New  York  city,  the  children  of  the  immigrants,  are 
much  taller  than  their  parents,  and  Joseph  Jacobs  has  found 
that  in  London  also  the  West  End  Jews  are  taller  than 
their  poorer  coreligionists  in  the  East  End.2 

Another  characteristic  of  the  Jews  is  their  narrow  chest. 
It  is  known  that  in  the  majority  of  healthy  individuals  the 

1  For  details  about  the  stature  of  the  Jews  in  the  United  States,  and  how  it 
is  influenced  by  heredity  and  environment,  see  M.  Fishberg,  "  Materials  for  the 
Physical  Anthropology  of  the  Eastern  European  Jews,"  Annals  of  the  Nezv  York 
Academy  of  Sciences,  1905. 

2  Studies  in  Jewish  Statistics,  p.  80. 

282 


NEW  YORK  283 

girth  of  the  chest  exceeds  one-half  of  their  stature.  In  the 
case  of  the  Jews  it  is  found  that  the  girth  equals  or  is 
less  than  half  their  height.  This,  with  their  poorly  devel 
oped  muscular  system  and  frequency  of  anaemia,  gives 
them  the  appearance  of  sickly  people.  But  considering  the 
fact  that  for  the  last  two  thousand  years  they  have  mostly 
been  town  dwellers,  and  in  the  towns  they  have  mostly 
inhabited  the  poorest  districts  in  insanitary  conditions, 
crowded  in  small,  badly  ventilated  dwellings,  as  we  learn 
from  the  histories  of  the  various  European  Ghettos,  it  would 
be  surprising  if  all  these  adverse  conditions  had  not  re 
duced  the  physique  of  the  Jews. 

Paradoxical  though  it  may  seem,  the  East   Side  Jews 
of  New  York  City,  notwithstanding  their  apparent  physical      , 
inferiority    externally    are   not   inferior   pathologically —  \J 
they  do  not  swell  the  mortality  returns  of  the  city ;  in  fact 
they  enjoy  an  unprecedented  longevity,   far  above  most 
other  non- Jewish  races  of  the  city.     "  The  Jew,  particu 
larly  amid  large  Jewries  of  the  East,"  says  Leroy  Beaulieu, 
"  is  often  small   and   puny  —  he   looks  wretched,    sickly, 
shrunken  and  pale.     But  all  this  should  not  deceive  us; 
exterior  is 


The  Jew  may  be  likene"d~to~those  lean  actresses,  the  Rachels 
and  Sarahs,  who  spit  blood  and  seem  to  have  but  a  spark 
of  life  left,  and  yet  who,  when  they  have  stepped  upon  the 
stage,  put  forth  indomitable  strength  and  energy.  Life 
with  them  has  hidden  springs."1 

On  his  arrival  at  New  York,  the  Russian  Jew  is  con 
fronted  by  sanitary  conditions  which  are  as  foreign  to  him 
as  the  language  of  the  country.  It  is  of  course  quite  diffi 
cult  for  him  to  adapt  himself  to  his  new  surroundings ;  but 
my  observations,  which  have  been  very  extensive  among  the 
foreign  population  of  New  York,  have  convinced  me  that 
the  Jew  adapts  himself  to  his  new  ~environmenT"far.more 
easily  and?  mm^speetthx^terrrt 
the  Bohemians,  the  Poles,  the  Scandinavians,  and  others. 

In  New  York  the  immigrant  Jew  is  principally  a  dweller 
in  the  tenement  house.  Although  scattered  all  over  the  city 
a  large  proportion  of  Russian  Jews  live  on  the  East  Side, 
south  of  Fourteenth  Street  and  east  of  the  Bowery;  prin 
cipally  in  the  Seventh,  Tenth,  Eleventh  and  Thirteenth 
Wards.  These  wards  enjoy  the  evil  disinction  of  being  the 

1  Israel  Among  the  Nations,  p.  150. 


284  HEALTH  AND  SANITATION 

most  densely  populated  spots  in  the  United  States,  and 
probably  on  the  earth.  The  Tenth  Ward  has  over  700  per 
sons  to  the  acre,  the  Thirteenth  about  600.  They  are  over 
crowded  with  tenement  houses  which  are  known  as  "  dou 
ble-deckers,  "  ' '  dumb-bell  ' '  tenements,  a  type  of  abode  for 
human  beings  which  New  York  has  the  unenviable  reputa 
tion  of  having  invented.  No  other  city  in  the  United  States 
has  any  such  houses.  Their  characteristics,  according  to 
the  report  of  the  Tenement  House  Commission,  are:  (1) 
Insufficiency  of  air,  light,  and  ventilation  due  to  narrow 
courts  or  air-shafts ;  undue  height,  owing  to  the  occupation 
by  the  building  and  adjacent  buildings  of  too  great  a  pro 
portion  of  land  area ;  (2)  overcrowding;  (3)  danger  in  case 
of  fire;  (4)  lack  of  separate  water-closets  and  washing  fa 
cilities;  (5)  foul  cellars  and  courts. 

A  "  double-decker  "  is  usually  a  building  six  to  seven 
stories  high,  about  twenty-five  feet  wide,  and  built  upon  a 
lot  of  the  same  width  and  about  100  feet  deep.  Each 
floor  is  usually  divided  into  four  sets  of  apartments,  there 
being  seven  rooms  on  each  side.  The  front  apartments  gen 
erally  consist  of  four  rooms  each,  and  the  rear  of  three 
rooms  each,  making  altogether  fourteen  rooms  upon  each 
floor,  only  four  of  which  receive  direct  light  and  air  from 
the  street  or  from  the  small  yard  at  the  back  of  the  build 
ing.  Of  these  four  rooms  only  two  are  large  enough  to 
deserve  the  name  of  rooms.  The  front  one  is  generally 
about  10  feet  6  inches  wide  by  11  feet  3  inches  long ;  this  is 
used  as  a  parlor.  The  next  room  is  a  kitchen,  generally 
of  the  same  size  as  the  parlor,  which  receives  its  air  and 
light  from  a  window  opening  into  the  narrow  "  air-shaft  " 
or  such  a  supply  which  may  come  to  it  through  the  door 
opening  into  the  front  room.  This  room  contains  a  range, 
a  sink,  and  one  or  two  glass-door  closets  for  dishes.  Behind 
these  two  rooms  are  two  bed-rooms  in  the  four-room  apart 
ments,  or  only  one  in  the  three-room  apartments.  The 
name  of  bed-room  is  applied  to  these  holes  by  the  landlords 
who  charge  rent  for  them,  but  in  reality  they  are  hardly 
more  than  closets,  being  each  about  7  feet  wide  and  8  feet 
6  inches  long.  When  a  fair-sized  bed  is  in  position,  there  is 
hardly  left  sufficient  space  for  one  to  pass  through  the 
room.  These  rooms  get  no  air  or  light  whatever  save  such 
as  comes  from  the  window  opening  into  the  air-shaft,  and 
with  the  exception  of  the  highest  stories  are  generally  al 
most  totally  dark.  Water-closets  are  provided  in  the  hall- 


NEW  YORK  285 

way,  one  for  two  apartments  or  for  two  families.  The  vast 
majority  of  these  "  dumb-bells  "  contain  no  bath-rooms, 
though  some  of  the  latest  models  do  contain  a  bath-tub  in 
each  apartment  or  one  for  the  entire  building  —  for  about 
twenty-five  families. 

The  ventilation  in  these  houses  is  obtained  through  the 
so-called  air-shafts,  which  have  been  called  by  some  witness 
before  the  Tenement  House  Commission  "  foul  air  shafts," 
"  culture  tubes  on  a  gigantic  scale."  Owing  to  its  nar 
rowness  and  its  height,  evidently  the  air-shaft  cannot  af 
ford  light  to  the  rooms,  particularly  the  bed-rooms,  but 
only  semi-darkness.  The  air  that  it  does  supply  is  foul, 
because  it  contains  the  air  coming  from  the  windows  of  the 
other  apartments  (there  are  as  many  as  sixty  windows 
opening  in  some  of  these  air-shafts).  Moreover,  the  air- 
shaft  is  used  by  some  as  a  convenient  receptacle  for  garbage 
and  all  sorts  of  refuse  and  indescribable  filth  thrown  out  of 
the  windows,  and  this  filth  is  often  allowed  to  remain  rot 
ting  at  the  bottom  of  the  shaft  for  weeks  without  being 
cleaned  out.  In  many  houses  this  air-shaft  is  also  used 
for  the  clothes  lines,  and  on  washing  days  the  air  and  light 
are  obstructed  by  the  linens  hung  on  these  lines  to  dry. 

It  will  be  observed  that  the  ventilation  of  the  houses  in 
these  tenements  is  reduced  to  a  minimum.  But  there  is  an 
older  kind  of  tenement  house  in  the  Jewish  quarter  of  our 
city  which  is  even  inferior  to  the  one  just  described.  These 
houses  have  no  air-shaft  —  and  consequently  no  windows 
at  all  in  the  kitchens  and  bed-rooms  —  one  sink  for  the 
supply  of  water  in  the  hallway  on  each  floor  for  four  apart 
ments,  only  one  water-closet  in  the  yard  for  all  the  sixteen 
to  twenty-five  families  of  the  building,  and  have  no  gas 
fixtures,  and  the  light  at  night  is  obtained  from  kerosene 
lamps.  These  inferior  old  tenements  are  inhabited  chiefly 
by  the  very  poor  Jews,  and  almost  invariably  by  the  non- 
Jewish  part  of  the  Ghetto  population.  It  is,  in  fact,  re 
markable  how  rarely  the  Irish,  German,  Bohemian,  Italian 
and  other  Gentiles  inhabit  the  new  tenements  in  this  dis 
trict,  which  are  therefore  left  almost  exclusively  to  the 
Jews.  As  we  shall  see  hereafter,  this  is  because  the  Russian 
Jew's  home  is  comparatively  cleaner  than  that  of  his  non-  / 
Jewish  neighbors  of  the  same  social  and  financial  status*/ 
and  he  therefore  prefers  to  live  in  a  house  having  a  handy* 
water  supply,  a  water-closet,  wash-tubs,  a  modern  range, 
and  the  like. 


286  HEALTH  AND  SANITATION 

The  number  of  persons  to  an  apartment  depends  on  the 
size  of  the  family  inhabiting  it,  on  the  financial  and  social 
condition  of  its  members  and  on  their  personal  habits.  The 
better  class  live  in  three  or  four  rooms.  Considering  that 
a  family  of  the  Ghetto  consists  on  an  average  of  six  persons 
the  better  class  require  three  or  four  rooms  for  every  six 
persons.  But  the  large  majority  of  the  East  Side  Jews  are 
very  poor,  and  cannot  afford  to  pay  ten  to  eighteen  dollars 
rent  per  month;  they  therefore  resort  to  lodgers  to  obtain 
part  of  their  rent.  In  the  four-room  apartments,  one  bed 
room  is  usually  sublet  to  one  or  more,  frequently  to  two 
men  or  women,  and  in  many  houses  the  front  room  is  also 
sublet  to  two  or  more  lodgers  for  sleeping  purposes.  The 
writer  on  many  occasions  while  calling  professionally  at 
night  at  some  of  these  houses,  beheld  a  condition  of  affairs 
like  this:  A  family  consisting  of  husband,  wife,  and  six 
to  eight  children  whose  ages  range  from  less  than  one  to 
twenty-five  years  each.  The  parents  occupy  the  small  bed 
room,  together  with  two,  three  or  even  four  of  the  younger 
children.  In  the  kitchen,  on  cots  and  on  the  floor,  are 
the  older  children;  in  the  front  room  two  or  more  (in  rare 
cases  as  many  as  five)  lodgers  sleep  on  the  lounge,  on  the 
floor  and  on  cots,  and  in  the  fourth  bed-room  two  lodgers 
who  do  not  care  for  the  price  charged,  but  who  desire  to 
have  a  "  separate  room  "  to  themselves. 

When  we  bear  in  mind  that  the  Ghetto  population  is  the 
poorest  in  the  city  and  that  the  rents  charged  are  the  high- 
'est,  we  are  not  surprised  at  the  condition  of  affairs  just 
described.  It  is  only  surprising  that,  in  spite  of  such  over 
crowding,  the  Jews  manage  to  be  the  healthiest  and  longest 
lived  class  of  the  population  of  New  York  City. 

i^^he_po5r_jpj)pj^alio^.of  the  city,  the  Jew 


ish  h£m£j&J3ie_jcJheanest.  In  the  smalPEhree-room  or  four- 
P€fi5m~lipartments,  which  a  poor  family  inhabits,  we  find,  as 
a  rule,  the  largest,  called  the  "  front  room,"  covered  with 
some  oil  cloth  and  rugs;  sometimes,  perhaps,  with  carpets; 
in  the  very  poor  houses  the  bare  wooden  floor  is  usually 
kept  clean.  The  front  room  in  tidy  homes  is  kept  closed, 
and  the  children  are  kept  out  of  it  the  greater  part  of  the 
day.  Such  a  clean,  tidy  room  for  the  reception  of  friends 
and  guests,  and  for  social  purposes,  is  not  seen  in  most  of 
the  homes  of  the  other  slum  population.  The  second  room, 
as  we  have  seen  above,  is  the  kitchen,  which  is  also  used  as 
a  dining-room  at  meal  time,  and  as  a  sitting-room  for  the 


NEW  YORK  287 

father,  mother  and  children.  The  entrance  to  the  house 
is  through  this  kitchen,  and  outside  visitors,  beholding  the 
entire  family  around  the  stove  or  table,  and  some  of  the 
children  playing  on  the  floor,  gain  the  impression  that 
the  home  of  the  Russian  Jew  is  untidy  and  even  filthy. 
But  careful  inspection  of  the  contents  of  the  room  will  show 
the  contrary :  The  range  is  sparkling  —  the  Russian  Jew 
ish  woman  takes  great  pride  in  the  condition  of  the  range. 
Where  the  landlord  does  not  provide  one,  a  Jewish  woman 
will  spend  as  much  as  $20  for  a  good  range  "  with  much 
nickel,"  and  give  hours  of  hard  labor  in  cleaning  and  pol 
ishing  it  daily.  I  have  actually  seen  houses  with  a  pitiful 
scarcity  of  furniture,  but  with  ranges  worth  from  $15  to 
$20.  The  sink,  which  in  modern  houses  is  also  found  in 
this  room,  is  in  the  majority  of  cases  kept  as  clean  as  in  any 
home  of  the  American  family,  and  much  cleaner  than  by 
people  of  other  nationalities  (for  instance,  Poles,  Bohem 
ians,  Italians,  etc.)  of  the  same  social  status.  The  third, 
and  in  four-room  apartments  also  the  fourth  room,  is  the 
bed-room  —  the  contents  are,  as  a  rule,  a  large  double-bed, 
and,  if  there  are  small  children,  a  baby  carriage  or  a  small 
children's  bed.  The  cleanliness  of  this  room  depends  usu 
ally  on  the  readiness  of  the  housekeeper  to  work  and  clean 
it  of  the  vermin  that  are  apt  to  be  found  in  such  dark, 
unventilated  places. 

The  personal  cleanliness  of  the  Russian  Jew  is  far  above 
that  of  the  average  slum  population.  The  Russian  baths 
are  very  numerous  in  the  Jewish  quarters,  and  very  much 
frequented.  "  I  cannot  get  along  without  a  *  sweat  '  (Rus 
sian  bath)  at  least  once  a  week,"  many  a  Jew  will  tell  you. 
On  the  days  when  these  Russian  baths  admit  only  women, 
they  are  also  crowded  with  women  and  children.  During 
the  summer,  the  public  baths  on  the  East  River  are  crowded 
with  Jewish  people  from  daybreak  till  late  in  the  evening. 
It  is  to  be  regretted  that  the  city  does  not  provide  more  of 
these  baths.  It  must  also  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  re 
ligious  Jew  cuts  the  nails  of  his  fingers  and  toes  at  least 
once  a  week,  because,  according  to  the  rabbinical  teaching, 
dirt  under  the  nails  contains  "  devils  "  or  "  evil  spirits." 
Before  each  meal  he  must  wash  his  hands,  and  repeat  this 
operation  immediately  after  meals,  and  must  then  also 
rinse  his  mouth ;  and  he  must  not  walk  four  steps  from  his 
bed  in  the  morning  without  careful  ablution  of  his  face  and 
hands.  A  Jewish  woman  must  visit  a  bath  at  least  once 


288  HEALTH  AND  SANITATION 

a  month ;  the  nails  of  her  fingers  and  toes  must  be  cut  off. 
These  religious  rites  and  customs  are  carefully  observed 
I  by  the  older  generation  who  are  generally  pious;  the 
younger  people,  though  they  do  not  observe  these  rites  re 
ligiously,  follow  some  of  them.  These  religious  rites  are, 
in  the  opinion  of  modern  sanitarians,  highly  conducive  to 
the  health  and  cleanliness  of  the  Jews,  and,  as  a  matter  of 
fact,  the  sanitary  condition  of  the  Jew's  person  and  home 
is  not  inferior  to  that  of  any  other  race  living  under  similar 
conditions  of  poverty,  want  and  overcrowding. 

One  reason  for  the  impression  of  uncleanliness  that  the 
casual  observer  may  obtain  is  the  filthy  streets  in  the  New 
York  Ghetto.  This  is  due  in  great  measure  to  the  negli 
gence  of  the  city  officials;  they  permit  in  the  Jewish 
streets  nuisances  which  would  not  be  tolerated  in  any  other 
quarter  of  the  city;  the  street  cleaning  department  clears 
the  Ghetto  only  after  it  has  cleaned  the  other  streets.  The 
residents  have  enough  to  care  for  the  houses,  which  are 
overcrowded,  and  leave  the  streets  to  the  city.  But  after 
all  this,  I  can  state,  and  I  am  convinced  that  I  will  be  sus 
tained  by  all  who  are  justly  entitled  to  an  opinion,  that 
even  the  streets  in  the  New  York  Jewish  quarter  are  as 
clean  as  those  inhabited  by  the  poor  Italians,  Bohemians 
and  other  immigrant  populations.  These  other  nationali 
ties  do  very  little  marketing  on  the  streets.  They  procure 
their  groceries,  dry  goods,  crockery,  etc.,  in  stores  or  mar 
kets.  The  Jews  generally  buy  most  of  their  goods  on  the 
streets  from  push  carts,  stands,  and  the  like.  The  reason 
for  this  is,  probably,  that  the  habit  is  very  prevalent  in 
Russia  and  Galicia,  and  they  have  brought  it  over  from 
their  old  home ;  besides,  the  Jew  has  somewhat  of  a  mercan 
tile  nature  —  when  he  cannot  satisfy  this  instinct  on  ac 
count  of  his  poverty  by  opening  a  store,  he  will  at  least  sell 
from  a  push  cart  or  do  some  peddling.  Streets  used  as 
markets  cannot  be  kept  very  clean. 

The  food  of  the  Russian  Jews  is  considered  to  be  above 
reproach.  The  meat  consumed,  as  is  well  known,  has, 
before  being  placed  on  sale,  undergone  a  thorough  inspec 
tion  as  to  the  health  of  the  animal  killed.  The  meat  is 
therefore  more  wholesome  and  more  fit  for  human  con 
sumption  than  that  in  the  average  non-Jewish  butcher 
shop.  As  we  shall  see  hereafter,  this  has  some  influence 
on  the  liability  of  the  Jew  to  tuberculosis.  Moreover,  the 
meat  consumed  by  the  Jew  is  fresh.  Meat  more  than  three 


NEW  YORK  289 

days  old  is  not  kosher  (ritually  clean),  and  in  order  that  it 
may  be  made  kosher  it  must  be  carefully  rinsed  in  clean 
water.  Religious  butchers  for  this  reason  do  not  keep  meat 
for  more  than  a  day  or  two.  The  same  applies  to  fowls, 
such  as  chickens,  turkeys,  etc.  Those  sold  in  Jewish  shops 
are  fresh,  and  come  from  healthy  animals. 

Fish  is  one  of  the  most  important  articles  in  the  diet  of 
the  Jew.  Those  who  do  not  consume  much  of  it  must  at 
least  have  fish  for  Friday  night  and  for  Saturday,  and 
when  fish  is  scarce  a  Jewess  will  pay  a  high  price  for  at 
least  one  or  two  pounds  of  it  for  Sabbath.  I  am  informed 
that  the  Jews  consume  proportionally  more  fish  than  any 
other  race  in  New  York. 

A  very  important  article  in  the  Jewish  diet  is  herring. 
In  very  poor  Jewish  families,  when  other  food  cannot  be 
procured,  they  can  live  for  days  on  bread,  herring,  and  tea 
alone.  Potatoes,  too,  are  much  in  vogue.  With  the  excep 
tion  of  horse-radish,  carrots,  cabbage,  beets,  and  a  few 
others,  the  Jews  consume  very  few  vegetables,  although 
fruits  of  all  varieties  are  very  freely  used. 

Another  important  fact  is  that  the  Jews  do  not  eat  much 

—  a  pound  of  meat  per  diem  is  sufficient  for  a  poor  family 
of  a  husband,  wife  and  a  few  children.     While  this  may  be 
partly  due  to  the  expense  —  kosher  meat  is  very  expensive 

—  still  it  is  a  fact  that  the  well-to-do  eat  comparatively  less 
than  non-Jews.     Gluttony  is  considered  a  sin  among  the 
Russian   Jews.     This   trait   has   also   been   retained   from 
Russia,  where  the  multitude  of  the  Jews  are  very  poor,  and 
food,  particularly  meat,  is  expensive,  because  of  the  special 
tax  levied  on  kosher  meat    (takse).     Jewish  women  gen 
erally  differ  from  the  men  in  this  respect.     You  will  quite 
often  meet  a  woman  who  likes  to  eat  much  and  well.     This, 
added  to  the  fact  that  the  Jewish  women  usually  do  noth 
ing  but  housework  after  marriage,  is  probably  the  reason 
why  6besity  is  more  frequently  met  with  among  them  than 
among  non-Jewish  women. 

pax^cularly^JJiase--from--Russia.  It  is  even  thought  by 
many  that  Jews  are  total  abstainers.  Though  this  may  be 
so  with  a  small  proportion,  many  Jews  partake  more  or  less 
of  alcohol  in  its  various  forms,  and  those  who  do  not  or 
dinarily  drink,  usually  do  so  at  least  on  Saturday  and  holi 
days  for  religious  purposes  (kiddush)  and  on  various  other 
occasions.  One  thing  must  be  conceded  —  Jews  only  rarely 


290  HEALTH  AND  SANITATION 

drink  to  intoxication ;  living  in  the  Jewish  quarters  of  New 
York  for  ten  years,  I  have  seen  a  Jewish  "  drunk  "  only 
rarely,  although  in  my  practice  as  a  physician,  I  have  re 
peatedly  met  with  Jewish  patients  suffering  from  the  ef 
fects  of  chronic  alcoholism  as  cirrhosis  of  the  liver,  alcoholic 
,  gastritis,  etc.     One  of  the  reasons  why  Jews  are  not  seen 
in  an  intoxicated  condition  on  the  streets  is  because  the 
I  Jew  generally  knows  when  to  stop  drinking,  and  when  he  is 

Msomewhat  intoxicated,  those  near  him  will  at  once  remove 
him  to  his  home  and  will  not  permit  him  to  behave  boister 
ously  on  the  streets.  An  officer  of  the  Society  Chesed  Shel 
Emeth,  which  has  as  one  of  its  objects  to  give  poor  people 
Jewish  burial,  informed  me  that  among  the  unclaimed  Jew 
ish  dead  in  the  New  York  morgue  he  has  during  more  than 
one  year's  service  met  with  only  one  case  in  which  alcohol 
ism  was  stated  to  be  the  cause  of  death,  and  this  among 
an  average  of  five  to  six  corpses  weekly  (including  chil 
dren).  When  we  recall  the  fact  that  the  unclaimed  bodies 
in  the  morgue  almost  invariably  come  from  the  lowest 
classes  of  society,  and  that  at  least  seventy-five  per  cent,  of 
the  Gentile  unclaimed  dead  in  the  morgue  are  directly  or 
indirectly  caused  by  alcoholism,  we  are  the  more  surprised 
at  the  infrequency  of  alcoholism  among  the  Jews  in  New 
York.  But,  still  it  can  pnaHivpjjrj^gfnfprl  that  the  vice  is 
growing.Jn  frequency__among  the^ews^n^H^w7  Yor£  City. 
We  occasionattylneeta  Jewisirpatient  In  the  alcoholic  ward 
of  Bellevue  Hospital.  In  their  old  home  in  Russia,  the 
Jews  abhor  a  drunkard;  they  name  him  with  converts  and 
outcasts.  To  have  a  drunkard  in  the  family  means  diffi 
culty  in  contracting  suitable  marriages  for  the  children. 
The  Jew  knows  that  it  does  not  pay  to  be  drunk.  Having 
lived  for  centuries  under  the  ceaseless  ban  of  abuse  and 

I  persecution  in  the  European  Ghettos,  he  has  found  it  ad- 
^  vantageous  to  his  well-being  always  to  be  sober.  But  here, 
alcoholism  is  increasing,  particularly  among  the  young-gen 
eration,  who  are  adapting-lhe  habits-aa4 -customs  of  life 
of  their  gentile  neighbors  —  their_jvir±ues--as  well  as  their 
vices. 

THe  Russian  Jews  are  generally  inveterate  smokers  of 
cigarettes;  only  few,  those  who  are  more  or  less  "  Ameri 
canized,"  smoke  cigars.  The  Russian  Jews  prefer  ciga 
rettes  with  mouth-pieces,  such  as  they  were  wont  to  smoke 
in  their  old  home.  Others  smoke  cigarettes  which  they 
roll  very  dexterously  with  their  fingers  from  tobacco  in 


NEW  YORK  291 

cigarette  paper.  Pipes  are  not  very  common.  Another 
habit  of  the  older  people  is  snuffing  pulverized  tobacco. 
Chewing  tobacco  is  unknown  among  Russian  Jews. 

Tea  is  probably  consumed  by  Russian  Jews  far  more  than 
by  any  other  nationality  living  in  New  York.  We  fre 
quently  see  one  who  drinks  more  than  a  dozen  glasses  of 
this  beverage  daily.  In  the  cafes  of  the  Ghetto  one  may 
always  observe  people  sitting  for  hours  and  drinking  tea. 
This  habit  has  been  acquired  in  Russia,  where  excessive 
tea  drinking  is  common.  One  advantage  of  the  tea  drunk 
by  the  Russian  Jews  over  that  consumed  by  the  Americans 
is  the  fact  that  the  Russians  never  drink  tea  that  has  been 
boiled ;  they  make  of  the  tea  an  infusion  with  boiling  water ; 
the  amount  of  tannin  retained  is  thereby  reduced  to  a 
minimum,  and  it  is  consequently  less  liable  to  cause  indiges 
tion,  and  only  the  volatile  oil  which  gives  the  aroma  is 
extracted. 

Considering  the  fact  that  the  Jews  are  the  most  nervous 
of  people,  as  we  shall  see  hereafter,  it  is  not  surprising  that 
they  consume  much  tea.  Having  their  nervous  system 
often  fatigued  and  exhausted  from  worry,  care  and  anxiety, 
they  require  some  agreeable  stimulant  which  will  remove,  at 
least  temporarily,  the  sense  of  fatigue,  and  give  a  feeling 
of  well-being.  Other  nations  use  alcohol  for  such  purposes,  f 
but  the  Jews  prefer  tea,  which  in  the  long  run,  of  course,  ,1 
overstimulates  their  nervous  system,  and  a  depression  is  the 
result,  which  requires  larger  doses  of  tea  to  overcome  it. 
A  vicious  circle  is  thereby  established,  which  by  no  means 
contributes  to  the  health  and  well-being  of  the  Russian  Jew. 

Coffee  is  used  by  the  Jews  in  Russia  only  rarely.  Here 
in  the  United  States  it  is  more  frequently  consumed,  but 
not  so  freely  as  tea.  Drug  habits,  such  as  the  use  of  opium, 
chloral,  cocaine,  etc.,  are  almost  unknown  among  the  Rus 
sian  Jews. 

While  speaking  of  the  evils  of  the  New  York  tenement 
houses,  the  various  Tenement  House  Commissions  were  al 
ways  wont  to  point  out  that  the  mortality  in  the  tenements 
is  considerably  higher  than  that  of  the  private  dwellings. 
They  succeeded  in  obtaining  from  the  vital  statistics  of  the 
city  figures  showing  that  the  mortality  in  some  wards  was 
between  two  and  five  times  higher  than  that  in  the  wards 
without,  or  with  few,  tenement  houses.  But  on  careful 
analysis  it  was  discovered  that  the  wards  which  enjoy  the 
lowest  mortality  of  the  other  wards  in  New  York  are  most 


292  HEALTH  AND  SANITATION 

densely  populated  spots  in  the  city,  overcrowded  with  tene 
ments,  each  of  which  affords  a  dwelling  place  for  between 
200  and  400  human  beings. 

The  wards  showing  the  lowest  mortality  in  Greater  New 
York  are  those  inhabited  by  the  Russian  Jews.  The  wards 
showing  the  highest  death  rates  are  inhabited  chiefly  by 
Italians,  Irish,  Bohemians,  etc.,  and  with  none  or  only  few 
Jews.  "  In  certain  blocks  in  the  Italian  quarter  of  the 
city  there  is  a  very  high  death  rate, ' '  says  the  Report  of  the 
Tenement  House  Commission  of  1900,1  "  while  in  certain 
other  blocks  only  half  a  mile  away,  in  the  Jewish  quarter, 
the  death  rate  is  only  one-half  as  great  as  the  average  death 
rate  of  the  city ;  yet  in  the  latter  district  there  was  a  greater 
population,  the  tenement  houses  were  taller,  and  the  gen 
eral  sanitary  conditions  were  worse." 

In  fact,  when  we  observe  the  comparative  death  rates  of 
the  Seventh,  Tenth,  Eleventh  and  Thirteenth  Wards,  which 
are  chiefly  inhabited  by  Jews,2  we  find  that  during  1899  the 
death  rate  per  1,000  population  was :  In  the  Seventh  Ward 
18.16 ;  in  the  Tenth,  14.23 ;  in  the  Eleventh,  16.78,  and  in 
the  Thirteenth,  14.52 ;  for  New  York  City  the  death  rate 
was,  in  the  same  year,  18.53  per  1,000.  It  will  be  observed 
that  the  Seventh  Ward  had  the  highest  death  rate  of  the 
Jewish  districts,  18.16,  nearly  approaching  that  of  the  city. 
But  considering  that  in  this  ward  the  non-Jewish,  particu 
larly  the  Irish  population,  makes  up  at  least  35  per  cent, 
of  the  total,  we  must  conclude  that  the  mortality  of  the  Jews 
in  this  district  is  also  lower  than  the  average  of  the  city. 

WTien  we  recall  that  the  death  rate  in  New  York  City 
was  in  1880,  26.40  per  1,000  of  population,  and  that  ever 
since  it  has  been  with  slight  fluctuations,  steadily  declining, 
we  may  find  that,  possibly,  there  may  be  some  correspond 
ence  between  this  reduction  of  mortality  in  the  city  and  the 
steady  influx  of  Jewish  immigrants.  While  the  activity  of 
the  Board  of  Health  towards  the  lowering  of  the  death 
rates  of  the  city  is  evident,  still  the  thousands  of  Jews  with 
their  low  mortality  may  also  have  contributed  somewhat  to 
this  effect. 

The  low  mortality  of  the  immigrant  Jewish  population  in 
New  York  City  was  noticed  in  the  report  compiled  by  Dr. 
John  S.  Billings,  for  the  Eleventh  Census  of  the  United 

»De  Forest  &  Veiller,   The  Tenement  House  Problem,  Vol.  1,  p.  55. 

2  It  is  estimated  that  over  75  per  cent,  of  the  population  in  these  wards  are 
Jews  —  the  Tenth  and  the  Thirteenth  almost  exclusively,  the  Eleventh  with  at 
least  80  per  cent.,  and  the  Seventh  65  per  cent. 


NEW  YOEK  293 

States.1  According  to  these  statistics  the  Russian  and 
Polish  Jews  showed  the  lowest  rates  of  mortality  in  New 
York  during  the  five  years  ending  May  31st,  1890.  The 
highest  mortality  rate  —  43.57,  was  found  to  be  among  the 
Bohemians ;  the  Italians  are  next,  with  35.29 ;  the  Irish,  with 
32.51,  etc.,  while  those  whose  mothers  were  born  in  Russia 
and  Poland  enjoyed  the  lowest  mortality  rates  —  only  14.85. 
The  mortality  of  children  was  also  the  lowest  among  the 
Russian  Jews  —  only  28.67  per  1,000  population,  as  against 
82.57  among  the  Bohemians,  76.41  among  the  Italians,  and 
so  on.  W.  Z.  Ripley,2  in  speaking  of  the  longevity  of  the 
Jews,  aptly  illustrates  it  by  the  following  example :  ' '  Sup 
pose  two  groups  of  one  hundred  infants  each,  one  Jewish, 
one  of  the  average  American  parentage  (Massachusetts),  to 
be  born  on  the  same  day.  In  spite  of  all  the  disparity  of 
social  conditions  in  favor  of  the  latter,  the  chances,  deter 
mined  by  statistical  means,  are  that  one-half  of  the  Ameri 
can  will  die  within  forty-seven  years;  while  the  first  half 
of  the  Jews  will  not  succumb  to  disease  or  accident  before 
the  expiration  of  seventy-one  years.  The  death  rate  is  but 
little  over  one-half  of  the  average  American  population. 
This  holds  good  in  infancy  and  in  middle  age. ' ' 

The  longevity  of  the  Jews  has  always  appeared  paradoxi 
cal  to  those  who  have  investigated  the  question.  As  we 
have  seen  above,  the  Jew  is  by  external  appearances  the 
least  physically  developed  of  the  European  nations;  in 
stature  he  is  the  shortest,  the  girth  of  his  chest  is  the  nar 
rowest,  he  is  paler  and  poorer  in  blood  than  most  of  the 
non-Jewish  nations  among  whom  he  lives.  But  his  long- 
evity  and  resistance  to  disease  surpasses  those  of  his  ap 
parently  stronger  neighbor.  The  cause  of  this  paradox  is 
plain  when  we  consider  the  Jew 's  history.  The  Jewish  race 
has,  for  the  last  two  thousand  years,  spread  widely  over  the 
face  of  the  earth.  During  all  his  migrations  from  conti 
nent  to  continent  and  from  country  to  country,  the  Jew 
was  always  exposed  physically  and  mentally  to  the  most 
diversified  conditions.  The  variety  of  climate,  the  re 
peated  changes  of  habits  and  attempts  at  acclimatization 
have  wrought  great  changes  in  his  physical  organization. 
His  struggles  against  adverse  circumstances,  endeavoring  to 
readjust  his  organism  in  adaptation  to  new  conditions, 
defending  himself  against  his  mediaeval  persecutors  who 

1  Vital  Statistics  of  New   York  City  and  Brooklyn,  p.   15. 

2  The  Races  of  Europe,   p.  383. 


294  HEALTH  AND  SANITATION 

mercilessly  gloated  over  his  agonies,  torturing  him  with  a 
fiendish  glee  of  hate  and  intolerance,  have  left  him  a  physi 
cal  wreck  as  far  as  external  appearance  is  concerned. 
But  on  the  other  hand,  these  inimical  conditions  have 
also  had  other  effects  on  the-  Jew's  organization. 
Partly  by  weeding  out,  either  by  death  or  bap 
tism,  all  those  of  the  Jews  who,  by  reason  of  physical, 
mental  and  intellectual  inferiority,  could  not  withstand  the 
ban  of  poverty,  abuse,  and  persecution,  and  partly  by 
keenly  sharpening  the  senses,  and  by  developing  the 
functional  activity  of  the  brains  of  those  who  were  suffi 
ciently  brave,  stubborn  enough  to  remain  Jews  in  the  face 
of  that  brutal  persecution,  natural  selection  has  left  behind 
a  race  which  is  at  present  fully  equipped  with  means  to  re 
sist  poverty,  misfortune,  and  even  death  more  easily  than 
other  races  who  have  had  no  such  struggle  for  their  exist 
ence.  Only  those  most  resistant  to  the  effects  of  disease,  the 
healthiest  who  could  easily  adapt  and  acclimatize  them 
selves  to  new  external  conditions  on  short  notice,  —  in  brief, 
only  the  fittest  have  survived.  At  one  period  of  their  his 
tory  they  had  to  withstand  the  effects  -of  contagious 
diseases,  all  those  predisposed,  the  weak,  sickly  and  infirm, 
succumbed,  and  those  left  behind  were  more  or  less  immune. 
This  immunity  was  transmitted  to  future  generations.  At 
^£  their  histe3ayy4atellience  and  intellect 


^ 

were  the  best  weapons-Jor  "the  -pr5^efvMioii0f~the  race  in 
,theT~struggIe  against  persecution,  and  only  those  who 
possessed_jth^_j2iost  —intelligence  "arid  knowledge  and  the 
toughe^tL_th^_shre_wdestl_  .  who_  were  best  ^fitted  to  cope 
w*  tli^jjjg^Jg^^  «"  rjgMMu-Lj—.  i|i  p  weak- 

esi^  the_  most  stupid  fljifl  *^Q  —  most  —  ignorant,  went 
tQjthe__jvalL  Thiie^uajiy^su-w^^  suc 

ceeding.-  generations.  The  final  result  is  that  the  Jews 
at  present  are  a  picked  race  which  can  resist  pain, 
misfortune,  grief,  worry,  starvation,  disease,  and  even  death 
better  than  other  civilized  races.  Those  who  were  shiftless, 
immoral,  lazy,  incorrigible,  drunkards,  could  not  remain 
Jews  under  the  mediaeval  persecutions.  Only  those  who 
were  strong,  healthy,  and  energetic  could  venture  to  remain 
Jews  —  hence  their  longevity. 

Of  the  diseases  to  which  Jews  are  most  liable  those  of  the 
nervous  system  stand  out  most  prominently.  Neurasthenia 
and  hysteria  are  more  frequent  among  them  than  among 
any  other  race.  Some  physicians  have  even  gone  so  far  as 


NEW  TOEK  295 

to  state  that  the  vast  majority  of  the  Jews  are  neurasthen 
ics,  and  that  nearly  all  the  women  are  hysterical.  The  ob 
servations  of  the  physicians  who  practice  among  the  Rus 
sian  Jews  in  New  York  sustain  these  contentions.  Hysteria 
is  very  frequent  among  women,  and  among  men  is  far  more 
often  met  with  in  Jews  than  among  any  other  people. 

Insanity  is  very  frequent  among  the  Jews.  It  appears 
that  it  was  very  frequent  among  the  ancient  Hebrews.  At 
present  we  find,  wherever  statistics  on  the  subject  are  avail 
able,  that  the  Jews  suffer  proportionately  from  two  to  five 
times  more  frequently  from  mental  alienation  than  non- 
Jews.  Here  in  New  York  City  we  meet  with  similar  condi 
tions.  Recent  statistics  show  that  the  Jews  in  this  city  sup 
ply  a  greater  number  of  insane  to  the  asylums  than  any 
other  race  living  here.1  The  same  can  be  observed  in  the 
asylums  for  idiotic  and  feeble-minded  children  of  our  city. 
It  is  stated  on  good  authority  that  more  than  fifty  per  cent, 
of  the  inmates  are  of  Jewish  origin.  Remembering  that  the 
Jews  constitute  less  than  twenty  per  cent,  of  the  total  popu 
lation  of  Greater  New  York,  we  can  appreciate  the  fearful 
proportion  of  insanity  and  idiocy  among  the  Jews. 

A  disease  of  which  the  Jews  suffer  more  than  any  other 
nationality  is  diabetes.  Dr.  Heinrich  Stern2  examined  care 
fully  the  mortality  from  diabetes  in  New  York  City  during 
1899,  and  found  that  out  of  a  total  of  202  deaths  due  to  this 
cause,  fifty-four,  i.  e.,  twenty-five  per  cent.,  occurred  among 
the  Jews.  And  as  the  Jewish  population  of  New  York  City 
is  scarcely  twenty  per  cent,  of  the  total  population,  it  fol 
lows  that  the  Jews  suffer  about  three  times  more  often  than 
others  from  diabetes.3  Varicose  veins,  hemorrhoids,  rup 
tures  and  some  form  of  diseases  of  the  nervous  system  are 
also  more  frequent  among  Jews  than  non-Jews. 

The  greater  liability  of  the  Jews  to  nervous  diseases,  par 
ticularly  neurasthenia,  hysteria,  and  diabetes  is  to  be  con 
sidered  as  the  outcome  of  a  long  series  of  events  in  the  Jews\  / 
history  for  the  last  two  thousand  years.     It  is  a  result  of  \1 
the  anxiety,  prolonged  worry,  grief,  and  cerebral  overwork 
of  the  Jews  under  the  ban  of  mediaeval  persecution.    These 
diseases,  as  we  all  know,  are  diseases  of  great  urban  centres, 
and  they  signify  that  the  organism  of  their  possessor  has 

1  See  articles  "  Idiocy  "  and  "  Insanity,"  by  the  author,  Jewish  Encyclopedia, 

2  Medical  Record,  November  17,  1900. 

3  For  a  more  thorough   discussion   of  the  subject,  see  article  "  Diabetes,"  by 
the  author,  Jewish  Encyclopedia,  Vol.  V. 


296  HEALTH  AND  SANITATION 

entered  on  a  race  of  competition  for  which  it  is  not  ade 
quately  equipped.  The  Jew  has  been  for  centuries  an  urban 
resident.  According  to  Jacobs,  four-fifths  of  the  Jewish 
population  live  in  large  towns.1  The  diseases  of  the  city 
population  are  therefore  accentuated  in  the  body  and  mind 
of  the  Jew.  Of  non-Jews  only  one-third  of  the  population 
are  town-dwellers;  and  the  case  is  consequently  different 
with  them.  It  has  been  shown  by  Mr.  Cantlie,  in  his  book, 
"  Degeneration  Amongst  Londoners,"  that  the  London 
poor  do  not  survive  beyond  three,  or  at  most,  four  genera 
tions  ;  the  same  has  been  proved  to  be  the  fate  of  the  poor 
inhabitants  of  Paris.  It  is,  indeed,  rare  to  find  among  the 
poor  in  modern  large  cities  families  which  could  trace  their 
ancestors  back  for  five  or  six  generations  as  city  dwellers. 
The  population  of  the  cities  is  kept  up  by  the  constant 
influx  of  good,  pure,  fresh  blood  from  the  country,  which 
counteracts  the  deteriorating  influences  of  the  busy,  ener 
vating  city  life.  Dr.  Otto  Ammon  has  conclusively  shown 
that  the  large  majority  of  the  town-dwellers  in  Baden,  Ger 
many,  are  either  themselves  immigrants  from  the  country 
or  else  the  children  of  immigrants.  The  same  has  been 
shown  to  be  true  of  nearly  all  the  other  cities  in  Germany  — 
nearly  one-half  their  population  is  of  direct  country 
descent.  One-third  of  the  population  in  London  is  of  coun 
try  birth;  the  same  is  true  of  Paris.  For  thirty  of  the 
principal  cities  of  Europe,  according  to  Bipley,  it  has  been 
calculated  that  only  about  one-half  of  their  increase  is  from 
the  loins  of  their  own  people,  the  overwhelming  majority 
being  of  country  birth.  The  Jews  have  not  had  this  ad 
vantage  of  draining  the  pure,  fresh,  healthy  country  blood 
for  the  rejuvenation  of  their  own,  which  is  deteriorated  by 
town-dwelling,  and  as  a  result  we  find  that  the  evil  effects 
of  the  strained,  nerve-shattering  city  life  have  been  deeply 
rooted  in  their  bodies  and  minds,  and  this  in  turn  has  been 
transmitted  to  their  offspring.  With  each  new  generation 
the  nervous  vitality  of  the  Jewish  race  lessened,  and  as  a 
final  result,  we  find  that  most  of  the  diseases  that  increase 
with  the  advance  of  civilization,  particularly  the  neuroses 
and  psychoses  and  also  diabetes,  are  relatively  more  fre- 

\quent  among  the  Jews  than  among  the  non-Jews.  '  The 
Jew, ' '  says  Leroy  Beaulieu,2 ' '  is  the  most  nervous  and  in  so 
far  the  most  modern  of  men.  He  is,  by  the  very  nature  of 

1  "  Anthropology,"   Jewish  Encyclopedia,   Vol.   I, 
"Israel  Among  the  Nations,  p.  169. 


NEW  YORK  297 

his  diseases,  the  forerunner  of  his  contemporaries,  preceding 
them  on  that  perilous  path  upon  which  society  is  urged  by 
the  excesses  of  its  intellectual  and  emotional  life,  and  by  the 
increasing  spur  of  competition.  The  noisy  army  of  psycho 
pathies  and  neuropathies  is  gaining  so  many  recruits  among 
us  that  it  will  not  take  the  Christians  long  to  catch  up  with 
the  Jews  in  this  respect. " 

Consanguineous  marriages,  which  are  very  frequent 
among  the  Jews,  have  been  assigned  as  a  most  potent  cause 
of  their  nervousness  and  also  of  the  frequency  of  diabetes 
among  them.  I  do  not  believe  that  this  is  a  satisfactory  ex 
planation.  Modern  medical  science  teaches  that  consan 
guineous  marriages  between  healthy  people,  per  se,  do  not 
cause  any  disease  or  infirmity  in  the  offspring  —  except 
ing  those,  of  course,  which  are  contracted  between  diseased 
people. 

A  very  important  factor  in  the  production  of  the  nerv 
ousness  of  the  Jews  is  that  they  are  essentially  a  commer 
cial  people  —  many  prefer  speculation  in  business  pursuits 
to  manual  labor.  This  can  be  observed  in  New  York  City, 
where  a  number  of  Jewish  laborers,  after  having  succeeded 
in  saving  a  few  dollars,  begin  business  on  a  small  scale ;  they 
peddle  or  sell  from  push-carts,  stands  and  small  stores. 

Business,  part icularly  that  jdona_with  lack_of  funds,  in 
volves  prolonged  JmorDi^~^otiojiaI_^xpi'J£ment^  such  as 
worry r.vexatiorr~griel:,  and  anxiety ;  and  the  importance  of 
these  as  factors — m— bmm — ex1laTisT^ir~T?aimot  be  over- 
esthrratetL.  The  Russian  Jew,  again,  as  we  have  seen,  is 
under-fed,  emaciated  and  anagmic.  The  disproportion  be 
tween  his  mental  activity  on  the  one  hand,  and  his  lack  of 
physical  developmitit  on  the  other,  are  added  to  the  fact 
that  he  comes  into  this  world  already  handicapped;  the 
nervous  vitality  of  his  parents  has  also  been  more  or  less 
affected  by  the  same  causes  and  an  additional  very  potent 
cause  of  nervous  exhaustion,  persecution,  which  has  strained 
and  shattered  them  physically  and  emotionally.  All  these 
factors  taken  together  give  us  more  than  sufficient  reason 
to  expect  nervousness  among  the  Russian  Jews. 

The  education  of  the  Russian  Jews  in  their  old  homes  is 
acquired  in  the  so-called  cheder,  at  an  early  age.  At  four 
or  five  years  a  Jewish  child  attends  school,  and  studies  ar 
dently  the  Hebrew  language.  Between  seven  and  ten  years 
he  studies  the  Bible,  and  in  instances  the  Talmud.  The 
Jewish  schools  in  Russia,  the  chedarim,  are  anything  but 


298  HEALTH  AND  SANITATION 

conducive  to  the  healthy  functional  development  of  the 
young  children's  nervous  system  and  bodily  activity. 

If  we  bear  in  mind  further  that  systematic  exercises,  such 
as  billiards,  golf,  tennis,  hunting,  gymnastics  are  not  in 
vogue  at  all  among  immigrant  Jews,  we  have  the  picture 
complete  —  the  restless,  overworked  and  exhausted  nervous 
system  gets  no  recreation,  and  breaks  down  under  the 
sligjatesfc-provocation. 

<^icifLe)  has  been  observed  to  be  infrequent  among  the 
Jews  in  Eastern  Europe,  but  in  New  York  City  it  appears 
to  be  growing  among  them.  We  have  no  exact  statistics  as 
to  its  proportion,  but  the  fact  is,  we  hear  of  Jewish  suicides 
quite  often.  Here  again  we  see  the  effects  of  modern 
civilization  on  the  Jew.1 

By  immunity  is  understood  the  resistance  of  the  tissues 
of  the  system  to  the  development  of  infectious  diseases.  It 
has  only  a  relative  meaning,  because  there  is  no  absolute 
immunity.  When  we  say  that  a  race  is  immune  to  a  cer 
tain  disease,  as  the  negro  is,  for  instance,  to  yellow  fever,  we 
do  not  mean  to  convey  the  idea  that  the  negro  never  suffers 
from  that  disease,  but  that  he  is  affected  less  frequently 
than  the  white  races  are,  or  only  rarely.  Using  the  term 
immunity  in  this  sense,  I  can  positively  state  that  the  Jews 
in  New  York  are  relatively  immune  to  most  of  the  infectious 
diseases.  I  make  this  statement  with  the  full  knowledge 
that  most  of  those  who  have  not  made  a  special  study  of 
the  mortality  from  contagious  diseases  in  New  York  have 
always  entertained  a  decidedly  contrary  opinion.  But  I 
think  that  a  careful  analysis  of  the  statistics  given  below, 
will  convince  all  skeptics  as  to  the  truth  of  the  assertion. 

As  we  have  seen  above,  there  are  four  wards  in  New 
York  City  which  are  chiefly  inhabited  by  Jews  —  namely 
the  Seventh,  Tenth,  Eleventh  and  Thirteenth.  At  least  75 
per  cent,  of  the  people  living  in  these  wards  are  Jews.  By 
computing  the  mortality  from  infectious  diseases  in  these 
wards  as  they  are  recorded  in  the  annual  reports  of  the 
Board  of  Health,  we  can  easily  see  if  the  Jews  have  a  lower 

1  It  is  worthy  of  notice  that  the  same  phenomenon  has  been  observed  among 
the  Jews  in  Western  Europe:  About  fifty  years  ago  it  was  very  rare  to  meet 
a  Jewish  suicide.  At  present  the  number  of  Jews  who  commit  suicide  has 
increased  to  an  alarming  extent.  Thus  the  latest  statistics  for  Prussia  show 
that  self  destruction  is  more  frequent  among  the  Jews  than  among  the  Chris 
tians;  from  1893  to  1897  there  occurred  among  the  Christians  31.17  male  and 
8.02  female  suicides  per  100,000  population.  Among  the  Jews  the  proportion 
was  36.50  male  and  11.89  females  per  100,000.  (Arthur  Rupin,  Die  Socialen 
V erhaeltnisse  der  Juden  in  Preussen  und  Deutschiand.  Berlin,  1902). 


NEW  YORK  299 

mortality  from  these  diseases.  An  analysis  of  these  figures 
shows  that  diphtheria  and  croup  killed  in  New  York  during 
1897,  1898  and  1899,  64.20  per  100,000  population,  and  of 
Jews  in  the  four  wards  referred  to  only  59.55.  Scarlet 
fever  and  measles  appear  to  have  been  the  exceptions,  the 
former  being  for  the  city  only  24.17  and  for  the  Jews  34.14 
per  100,000,  the  latter  showing  21.69  and  21.15  respectively. 
In  Dr.  Billings '  report  on  Vital  Statistics  of  New  York  City 
and  Brooklyn,  published  by  the  Eleventh  Census  of  the 
United  States,  there  is  given  the  mortality  from  certain 
diseases  of  the  various  races  and  nationalities  confirming 
these  figures.  I  have  assumed  the  figures  in  this  report 
which  refer  to  Russians  as  applying  to  Russian  Jews,  as 
these  are  the  greater  part  classified  under  the  nationality 
in  these  cities. 

Diarrhoeal  diseases  are  also  less  fatal  among  the  Jews. 
Every  year  we  hear  that  when  philanthropists  are  clamor 
ing  about  the  great  mortality  of  children  from  diarrhoeal 
diseases  during  the  summer  months,  they  point  to  the  con 
gested  tenement  districts  inhabited  by  the  Jews  as  being 
the  stronghold  of  the  scourge.  If  they  had  studied  the  ques 
tion  more  closely,  they  would  have  ascertained  that  the  Jews 
in  the  Seventh,  Tenth,  Eleventh  and  Thirteenth  Wards  have 
a  lower  mortality  from  this  disease  than  any  other  national 
ity  —  the  average  annual  mortality  in  New  York  City  dur 
ing  1897,  1898  and  1899  was  125.54  per  100,000  population. 
Among  the  Jews  in  the  four  wards  mentioned  only  106.79. 
For  the  six  years  ending  May  31st,  1890,  the  mortality  for 
New  York  from  diarrhoaal  diseases  was  316.85;  among  the 
Bohemians,  766.73;  Italians,  425.58;  United  States,  white, 
398.34,  and  among  the  Russian  and  Polish  Jews  only  195.55. 
The  same  is  true  of  typhoid  fever.  It  is  proportionately 
less  frequent  in  the  East  than  in  the  West  Side  of  the  city. 

The  mortality  from  diseases  of  the  nervous  system  among 
the  Russian  Jews  of  New  York  during  six  years  ending  May 
31st,  1890,  as  given  in  the  Eleventh  Census  was  117.68,  as 
against  336.76  among  the  Bohemians,  293.48  white  Ameri 
cans,  242.44  Irish,  and  so  on.1  This  is  contrary  to  the  opin 
ion  of  many  demographers  who  consider  the  Jews  the 
greatest  sufferers  from  nervous  diseases.  But  if  we  bear  in 
mind  the  fact  brought  out  by  the  author  while  speaking  of 
the  nervousness  of  the  Jews  that '  *  only  the  functional  nerv- 

1  Billings,    Vital  Statistics  of  New   York  City  and  Brooklyn,  p.    41, 


300  HEALTH  AND  SANITATION 

OTIS  diseases,  as  hysteria  and  neurasthenia,  are  more  preva 
lent  among  the  Jews,  while  the  organic  degenerative  nervous 
diseases  are  even  less  frequently  met  with  among  them," 
we  are  not  surprised  at  the  low  mortality  from  this  cause 
among  the  Jews  of  Russia  and  Poland  in  New  York. 

Of  the  venereal  diseases,  such  as  syphilis,  the  Jews  ap 
pear  to  suffer  le^s  frequently  than  other  races.  Many 
writers  in  Russia  have  recorded  statistics  to  that  effect. 
We  have  no  exact  statistics  about  the  prevalence  of  syphilis 
and  gonorrhea  among  the  Jews  in  New  York,  but  the  tes 
timony  of  physicians  practicing  among  them  shows  that 
while  among  the  Jews  syphilis  is  often  met  with,  it  is  not 
so  frequently  encountered  as  among  non-Jews.  Gonorrhea 
seems  at  present  to  be  very  much  on  the  increase  among 
the  Jews  in  the  East  Side  of  New  York,  which  again  shows 
the  effects  of  their  sojourn  in  our  metropolis. 

The  most  important  disease  to  which  the  Jews  show  a 
relative  immunity  is  tuberculosis,  or,  <  as  it  is  commonly 
known,  consumption.  The  author  of  this  article  has  shown 
this  to  be  a  fact  among  the  immigrant  Jewish  population 
in  New  York  City  in  his  paper  on  the  "  Relative  Infre- 
quency  of  Tuberculosis  Among  Jews,"  to  which  the  reader 
is  referred  for  details.1  One  fact  we  desire  to  emphasize 
here,  namely  that  consumption  is  very  much  on  the  in 
crease  among  our  population  on  the  East  Side,  particular 
ly  among  the  poorer  classes  of  the  Jews  living  in  New 
York  City.  Dr.  Lee  K.  Frankel,  manager  of  the  United 
Hebrew  Charities,  has  shown  that,  while  in  1895  the  ratio 
of  consumptive  applicants  for  relief  was  2  per  cent.,  in 
1899  it  reached  3  per  cent. ;  i.  e.,  that  is,  an  increase  of  50 
per  cent,  in  four  years,  which  is  appalling.  Dr.  Frankel 
also  shows  that  consumption  as  it  exists  among  the  Jews 
in  New  York  is  almost  wholly  confined  to  the  lower  classes, 
the  poorer  element  of  the  Jewish  population,  and  that  the 
foreigners  who  suffer  from  this  disease  have  contracted  it 
after  their  arrival  in  the  United  States.  He  bases  his  de 
duction  on  an  examination  of  10,000  death  certificates  in 
the  New  York  City  Board  of  Health,  beginning  with  Jan 
uary  1st,  1900.  In  888  of  these  the  cause  of  death  was 
stated  to  be  tuberculosis;  72  of  these  were  Jews.  If  we 
recall  the  fact  that  the  Jewish  population  of  New  York 
City  is  estimated  to  be  at  least  15  per  cent,  of  the  total 

1  American  Medicine,  November  2,  1901.  See,  also,  article  "  Consumption," 
Jewish  Encyclopedia,  Vol.  IV. 


NEW  YORK  301 

population,  we  may  from  Dr.  Frankel's  figures,  also  find 
that  if  consumption  was  as  prevalent  among  the  Jews  as 
among  the  general  population,  the  number  of  deaths  due 
to  this  cause  should  have  been  133.  As  it  is,  only  72  were 
recorded,  a  little  over  one-half  that  of  the  population  of 
the  city.  We  also  find  from  Dr.  Frankel's  figures  that  of 
the  72  Jews  who  died  of  consumption,  39  died  in  tenement 
houses,  23  in  institutions  and  only  1  in  a  private  house. 
This  tends  to  show  that  those  Jews  who  are  socially  and 
economically  on  a  higher  plane,  are  even  less  liable  to  con 
sumption  than  the  unfortunate  poor  who  are  huddled  to 
gether  in  congested  tenements,  in  poverty  and  in  want, 
exposed  to  infection  to  the  highest  degree.  It  can  be  posi 
tively  stated  that  in  case  the  conditions  of  over-crowding 
and  misery  among  the  immigrant  Jewish  population  on  the 
East  Side  shall  keep  on  as  they  are  at  present,  the  Jews 
living  here  will  in  the  near  future  show  a  yet  greater 
mortality  from  the  "  white  plague  "  than  the  Irish  and 
Italians  do  at  present. 

The  low  mortality  of  the  New  York  Jews  from  the  con 
tagious  diseases  is  the  more  remarkable  when  we  bear  in 
mind  that  everything  that  is  conducive  to  the  spread  of 
infection  is  at  hand  in  the  East  Side  —  poverty,  overwork, 
ill-ventilated  sweat-shops,  overcrowding  in  the  tenements, 
lack  of  fresh  air  and  sunshine  —  in  fact,  the  New  York 
Ghetto  is  considered  the  most  densely  populated  spot  on 
earth.  When  we  remember  that,  in  spite  of  all  these  ad 
verse  conditions,  the  Jews  show  a  lower  mortality  from 
contagious  diseases,  we  are  forced  to  conclude  that  they 
do  possess  some  relative  immunity  or  a  greater  power  of 
resistance  to  the  noxious  effects  of  contagious  diseases. 

The  causes  of  this  relative  immunity  of  the  Jews  are  to 
be  sought  in  their  past  history,  their  religious  customs  and 
habits  of  life;  to  their  devotion  as  husbands,  as  wives,  as 
parents  and  as  children.  Although  the  nervous  system 
of  the  Jews  is  more  or  less  shattered  as  a  result  of  the 
ceaseless  persecution,  abuse  and  oppression  they  have  un 
dergone  for  centuries,  still  the  organic  nervous  diseases  are 
infrequent  among  them  —  the  reason  for  this  is  plainly 
evident  —  and  alcohol  and  syphilis  are  also  infrequent. 
We  know  that  any  poison  that  depresses  the  vitality  of  the 
system,  as  alcoholism  and  syphilis,  predisposes  infection 
by  pathogenic  micro-organisms.  Pneumonia,  consumption 
and  many  other  fatal  diseases  have  alcoholism  as  a  remote 


302  HEALTH  AND  SANITATION 

cause  of  their  origin.  The  Jews,  not  being  addicted  to  alco 
holism,  are  consequently  less  frequently  affected  by  these 
diseases.  Another  important  point  is  the  fact  that  the 
prognosis  of  most  of  the  infectious  diseases  depends  on 
the  patients'  antecedents.  A  mild  attack  of  disease  in  an 
alcoholic  is  more  liable  to  kill  than  a  severe  case  in  a  tem 
perate  man.  The  vitality  of  the  offspring  also  depends 
very  much  on  the  presence  or  absence  of  alcoholism  and 
syphilis  in  the  parents.  Children  begotten  of  parents  suf 
fering  from  these  virulent  poisons  are  easy  prey  to  the 
infectious  diseases.  The  Jewish  children  show  a  lower 
mortality,  because  their  parents  bestow  on  them  a  vitality 
untainted  by  alcoholism  and  syphilis,  and  they  can  there 
fore  more  easily  resist  the  effects  of  contagious  diseases. 
Jewish  parents  are  also  more  devoted  to  their  children  than 
others,  their  anxiety  in  case  of  slight  illness  is  greater  than 
that  of  poor  people  of  other  races,  and  they  seek  medical 
assistance  far  more  frequently.  Added  to  this  fact,  that 
Jewish  women  do  not  after  marriage  work  in  factories  as 
frequently  as  poor  women  of  other  nationalities  and  have 
more  time  to  attend  to  their  children,  and  we  have  all  the 
factors  that  reduce  the  mortality,  particularly  of  infants. 

The  lesser  mortality  of  the  Jews  from  consumption  is  ex 
plained  by  the  above  factors,  and  an  additional  very  im 
portant  religious  rite  —  the  inspection  of  carcasses  in  the 
slaughter-house  as  to  the  health  of  the  cattle.  The  Jew  is 
prohibited  from  consuming  meat  coming  from  diseased  cat 
tle,  particularly  such  which  have  suffered  from  diseases 
of  the  lungs  and  pleura.  We  know  that  a  great  proportion 
of  the  tuberculosis  has  its  origin  in  the  consumption  of 
meat  coming  from  tubercular  cattle.  In  the  case  of  the 
Jews  the  chances  of  infection  from  this  source  are  reduced 
to  a  minimum. 

To  the  cleanliness  of  the  Jewish  home  from  the  moral 
rand  sanitary  point  of  view  we  must  ascribe  most  of  the 
health,  longevity,  and  immunities  of  the  Jews.  When  the 
•jJew  assimilates  with  his  non- Jewish  neighbors,  adopting 
their  modes  of  life  and  habits,  he  gradually  loses  his  im 
munity  and  his  longevity,  and  in  time  does  not  differ  as  to 
health  and  sanitation  from  the  people  among  whom  he 
happens  to  live. 

It  is  agreed  that  the  immigration  of  sober,  healthy,  and 
industrious  people  to  the  United  States  is  desirable,  and  in 
view  of  all  the  facts  we  have  collected,  the  Russian  Jew  is 


NEW  YORK  303 

as  desirable  as  any  other  class  of  foreigners  and  better 
than  many.  We  all  know  that  notwithstanding  the  fact 
that  the  Russian  Jew  comes  from  a  country  where  typhus 
and  smallpox  are  endemic  and  cholera  quite  often  rages 
epidemically,  he  has  never  brought  these  diseases  with 
him  ;  even  during  1891-1894,  when  cholera  was  raging  in 
Russia,  the  numerous  Jewish  immigrants  did  not  import 
the  disease  to  the  United  States. 

The  fact  that,  they  arejant  addict.*^  fr^  alcoholism  is  also 
one 


..desirable  immigrant.  Those  few  insanitary  habits 
which  he  acquirecTm  Russia  the  Jew  does  his  best  to  for 
get  after  living  a  longer  time  in  the  United  States.  And 
as  his-childgen  -attend  puIiLJuL-SchQol  almost  invariably,  we 
are  eenvinced^haj^tke-geR^^  the 

Russian  J^ws-o£--^e-day.~isrillj>rpve  to  be  good  Americans 
morally,,  physically,  and  intellectually; 


\ 


(B)  PHILADELPHIA 

It  is  well  recognized  that  housing  conditions  in  Phila 
delphia  are  different  from  those  in  other  large  cities,  and 
that  whatever  the  evils,  we  do  not  have  to  contend  with 
the  evils  of  the  tenement.  However,  it  will  not  do  for 
Philadelphians  to  gloat  over  the  fortunate  situation  which 
has  enabled  so  many  working-men  of  the  city  to  live  in 
their  own  little  homes,  sometimes  under  their  own  "  vine 
and  fig-tree, "  for  we,  too,  have  evils  which  call  for  rem 
edy;  we  have  allowed  congestion  among  our  foreign  popu 
lations;  we  have  permitted  bad  housing  to  grow  up;  we 
have  failed  to  make  and  to  enforce  regulations  which  pre 
vent  sickness  and  disease  and  contagion;  and,  through 
negligence,  the  City  of  Philadelphia  has  problems  which 
it  should  have  coped  with  ere  they  rose  to  large  dimen 
sions. 

A  little  study  of  housing  conditions  in  the  southeastern 
section  of  the  city  was  made  in  the  spring  of  1902  under 
the  auspices  of  the  Octavia  Hill  Association.  The  writer 
had  the  pleasure  of  taking  part  in  the  investigation,  the 
entire  results  of  which  were  placed  at  his  disposal. 

The  five  wards  of  the  district  to  which  attention  was 
given,  the  Second,  Third,  Fourth,  Fifth  and  Seventh,  con 
tain  about  one-eighth  of  the  population  of  the  city  and 
cover  about  one-fiftieth  of  the  area.  The  average  density 
of  the  most  thickly  populated  ward,  the  Third,  is  209  per 
sons  per  acre.1  The  average  density  for  tlje  entire  city 
is  14  persons  to  the  acre.  It  is  therefore  evident  that  we 
are  dealing  with  a  congested  portion  of  the  city. 

I  shall  take  up  the  figures  of  the  Jewish  block,  among  the 
three  examined  in  the  investigation  referred  to,  the  other 
two  being  Italian  and  negro  blocks  respectively, —  so  de 
nominated  because  the  greater  part  of  the  inhabitants  are 
of  the  particular  class.  In  the  Jewish  block,  Third  to 
Fourth  Street,  South  to  Bainbridge  Street,  I  have  noted 
75  houses  occupied  by  Jews;  9  on  Third  Street,  13  on 

*  Annals  of  the  Academy  of  Political  and  Social  Science,  July,  1902,  p.  111. 

304 


PHILADELPHIA  305 

Fourth  Street,  13  on  South  Street,  23  on  Kater  Street,  3 
on  Orianna  Street,  and  14  on  Bainbridge  Street.  This  is, 
in  many  respects,  a  good  illustrative  block  for  our  purpose, 
representing  as  it  does  several  elements,  from  the  economic 
standpoint.  On  South  Street,  there  are  stores  where  all 
sorts  of  goods  may  be  purchased;  it  is  a  regular  retail 
street.  Third  and  Fourth  Streets  are  likewise  occupied 
by  shop-keepers.  Bainbridge  Street  contains  old  clothes 
and  second-hand  shops.  In  the  upper  stories  of  these 
buildings,  those  portions  not  occupied  by  the  store-keeper 
are  rented  to  tenants,  whose  occupations  are  tailoring, 
peddling  and  the  like.  The  residents  of  the  smaller  streets, 
Orianna  and  Kater,  and  the  upper  floors  of  the  buildings 
of  the  main  streets  are  a  poorer  class  than  the  merchants 
of  South  Street  and  the  shop-keepers  of  Third  and  Fourth 
Streets. 

Let  us  take  up  for  examination  one  of  the  small  streets 
of  the  block  and  ascertain  the  condition  with  reference  to 
housing.  On  Kater  Street  we  have  a  record  of  23  houses 
with  Jewish  families.  There  were  among  them  9  tailors, 
3  peddlers,  1  huckster,  1  shirtmaker,  1  paper-hanger.  This 
is  sufficient  to  give  some  idea  of  the  economic  position  of 
the  inhabitants.  The  average  rental  per  house  was  $15.04 
per  month.  This  is  equal  to  $8.06  for  each  family,  as  there 
were  40  families  in  the  23  houses.  There  are  thus  an  aver 
age  of  1%  families  to  the  house.  The  total  number  of  per 
sons  in  these  houses  was  299  — 197  adults  and  102  children 
(under  14  years  of  age).  This  is  an  average  of  about  5 
to  a  family,  and  8.65  persons  to  a  house.  The  houses  aver 
age  three  stories  each,  or  5.83  rooms  each,  there  being  alto 
gether  134  rooms.  The  result  is  that  there  were  1.48  per 
sons  to  each  room,  a  condition  of  crowding  not  only  from  a 
Philadelphia  point  of  view,  but  from  that  of  congestion 
generally.  It  is  a  larger  number  than  was  found  in  an  in 
vestigation  in  three  similar  districts  in  Chicago,  where  the 
average  was  1.28.  It  must  be  admitted,  however,  that  a 
comparison  based  on  the  number  of  persons  to  a  dwelling 
does  not  show  a  bad  state  of  affairs  for  this  population 
contrasted  with  the  average  of  the  population  in  some  of 
the  large  cities.  In  Philadelphia  the  number  of  persons 
in  1900,  according  to  the  Twelfth  United  States  Census, 
was  5.4.  In  Baltimore  the  average  number  was  5.7,  in  St. 
Louis  7,  in  Boston  8.4,  in  Chicago  8.8,  in  Brooklyn  10.2,  in 
the  boroughs  of  Manhattan  and  Bronx  (of  Greater  New 


306  HEALTH  AND  SANITATION 

York)  20.4.  But  we  are  justified  in  making  compari 
son  with  congested  sections,  for  our  purpose.1 

Of  course,  to  make  the  comparison  absolutely  accurate 
as  a  basis  for  sanitary  and  health  conditions  we  should 
have  to  take  into  consideration  the  number  of  cubic  feet 
in  the  rooms,  the  surroundings  of  each,  and  the  like,  but  it 
is  sufficient  here  to  bring  out  the  fact  that  a  state  of  crowd 
ing  exists. 

Belonging  to  the  23  houses  on  Kater  Street  there  were 
22  water  closets  and  5  privies.  This  is  an  average  of  1.17 
to  a  house,  or  .67  to  a  family,  or,  to  put  the  fact  in  another 
way,  7  adults  and  children  had  the  use  of  one  water-closet 
or  privy. 

The  total  number  of  bath-tubs  in  these  23  houses  was  2, 
of  which  one  is  used  only  in  the  summer  'time. 

Twelve  of  the  23  houses  had  as  their  sole  water  accom 
modation  one  hydrant  each,  in  the  yard.  Three  additional 
houses  had  a  total  of  one  hydrant  for  common  use.  Two 
others  had  one  hydrant  in  common.  Thus  there  is  a  to 
tal  of  14  hydrants  for  17  houses  occupied  by  20  families 
composed  of  102  persons,  an  average  of  more  than  7  per 
sons  (adults  and  children)  to  one  hydrant  for  washing 
clothes  and  persons.  The  other  20  families  had  altogether 
20  faucets. 

These  statements  show  housing  conditions  in  a  poor 
street,  merely  from  the  standpoint  of  the  barest  and  most 
ordinary  health  and  sanitary  accommodation. 

When  one  considers  that  comfortable  houses  with  good 
accommodations  can  be  found  in  other  sections  of  the  city 
at  $15  per  month,  it  is  a  fair  inference  that  the  landlord 
profits  by  a  condition  of  affairs  which  permits  bad  hous 
ing;  that,  in  any  event,  the  tenant  does  not  obtain  a  good 
return  for  his  rental  as  compared  with  other  sections. 

Now,  taking  in  the  entire  block,  as  regards  the  75  houses 
containing  Jewish  residents,  we  find  that  the  total  number 
of  persons  was  688  —  372  adults  and  316  children.  These 
represent  142  families.  As  there  were  496  rooms  in  these 
houses,  the  average  number  of  rooms  per  house  was  6.6. 
The  average  number  of  persons  to  the  room  was  1.39,  a 
condition  of  crowding  above  that  quoted  for  Chicago.2 
As  the  total  number  of  families  in  these  75  houses  was  142, 

1  Tenement  Conditions  in  Chicago,  p.  64.     Of  the  three  Chicago  districts  one 
is  composed  of   Italian   and  Jewish  residents  and  the  average  in  this  was  1.26 
persons   per   room. 

2  Tenement  Conditions  in  Chicago,  p.  64. 


PHILADELPHIA  307 

the  average  of  families  to  the  house  was  1.9,  and  as  the 
total  number  of  persons  was  688,  the  average  was  9.17  per 
sons  to  the  house.  This  is  considerably  more  than  the  aver 
age  for  the  city  at  large  (which  is  but  5.4  persons  to  the 
house).  It  is  also  more  than  the  average  in  the  three  dis 
tricts  in  Philadelphia  which  were  studied.  Their  average 
was  7.55.  The  average  for  the  Italian  block  was  9.88  and 
for  the  negro  5.73.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  crowding  in 
the  Italian  block  is  the  greatest. 

In  this  block  in  the  75  houses  there  were  86  water  closets 
and  22  privies,  making  a  total  of  108,  an  average  of  1.46  to 
a  house,  or  1.31  to  a  family,  that  is,  6.4  had  the  use  of  one 
water  closet  or  privy.  As  to  quality,  some  of  these  closets 
and  privies  are  reported  as  being  in  bad  condition,  which 
may  mean  not  kept  cleanly,  insufficient  flush  of  water,  so 
arranged  as  not  to  allow  of  the  exhalation  of  gaseous 
odors,  and  the  like.  Though  something  may  in  instances 
be  due  to  the  carelessness  of  tenants,  many  faults  which 
affect  the  permanent  health  of  the  community  are  due  to 
the  landlords  in  not  providing  adequate  and  approved 
appliances. 

There  were  in  the  75  houses  altogether  8  bath  tubs,  of 
which  3  were  used  only  in  the  summer.  This  is  an  average 
of  about  86  persons  to  a  tub. 

Such  a  condition,  on  its  face,  bespeaks  a  failure  to  ap 
preciate  the  value  of  the  bath.  It  should  be  understood, 
however,  that  the  public  bath  is  often  patronized  in  the  ab 
sence  of  a  home  bath.  There  are  five  private  bathing  es 
tablishments  down-town  conducted  by  Jews  and  patronized 
almost  entirely  by  the  Jewish  population  of  this  section. 
They  have  the  ordinary  bath  and  the  Russian  or  sweat-bath 
—  somewhat  similar  in  principle  to  the  Turkish  bath.  The 
superintendent  of  the  Public  Baths  Association  at  Gaskill 
Street  above  Fourth,  informs  me  that  about  40  per  cent, 
of  the  establishment  there  are  Jews.  Then,  too,  the  public 
baths  of  the  city  are  patronized  to  a  considerable  extent. 

It  appears,  therefore,  that  there  is  more  use  of  bathing 
facilities  than  the  absence  of  bath  tubs  in  the  houses  indi 
cates.  At  the  same  time,  it  seems  that  the  population  needs 
considerable  education  in  the  use  of  water  for  the  body. 
The  habits  of  Russia  and  cold  climates,  where  there  was 
less  need  for  the  bath,  must  be  adapted  to  the  at  times 
heated  atmosphere  of  America  and  to  the  modern  notions 
of  frequent  bathing  of  the  body  as  a  measure  of  health.  A 


308  HEALTH  AND  SANITATION 

similar  absence  of  baths  is  found  in  the  houses  of  other 
foreign  born  and  of  the  negroes  in  this  section  of  the  city, 
but  it  is  regretable  to  have  to  institute  the  comparison  be 
cause  along  other  lines  the  Jew's  education  and  point  of 
view  are  so  far  advanced  over  those  of  other  nationalities.1 

Somewhat  similar  results  to  those  above  narrated  were 
obtained  with  reference  to  a  block  further  south.  The 
study  referred  to  was  made  by  a  resident  of  the  College 
Settlement,  Miss  Edith  Jones.  The  study  embraced  Car 
penter,  Christian,  Fourth  and  Fifth  Streets,  and  the  north 
side  of  Christian  Street  between  Fourth  and  Fifth.  The 
investigator  noted  the  following:  "  One  observation  as 
regards  nationality  needs  to  be  recorded.  An  Irish  fam 
ily,  unless  hopelessly  untidy,  is  thoroughly  clean,  not  only 
inside  but  outside  the  house  and  all  its  surroundings.  .  . 
On  the  other  hand,  the  majority  of  the  Jewish  homes  are 
clean  inside,  but  stairways,  closets,  yards,  etc.,  which  must 
be  used  in  common  by  several  families,  are  scarcely  cared 
for  at  all.  .  .  .  They  seem  unable  to  act  together  or 
to  form  any  agreement  for  division  of  common  duties." 

In  an  uptown  district  an  investigation  into  housing  con 
ditions  was  made  in  1904  by  Miss  Emily  W.  Dinwiddie  for 
the  Octavia  Hill  Association.2  I  visited  a  number  of  the 
houses  with  her.  The  district  contained  35  houses  on  North 
American  Street,  30  on  New  Market  Street,  and  8  on 
Wood  Street,  making  73  in  which  the  inhabitants  were 
predominantly  Jews  out  of  a  total  of  179  houses  investi 
gated.  The  number  of  Jewish  families  in  these  73  houses 
was  100,  an  average  of  1.45  families  to  a  house.  The  total 
number  of  Jewish  persons  was  found  to  be  606,  of  which 
341  were  over  fourteen  years  of  age  and  265  under  that 
age.  The  number  of  rooms  occupied  by  the  Jewish  families 
was  3.72,  making  an  average  of  1.66  persons  to  a  room. 
The  number  per  house  was  8.36. 

The  number  of  water-closets  was  32  and  of  privies  42, 
making  a  total  of  74  toilets,  an  average  of  one  to  a  house, 
or  of  one  to  8.19  persons  each.  There  were  122  faucets 
(usually  the  only  one  for  a  house  being  connected  with  a 
hydrant  in  the  yard)  an  average  of  1.67  per  house,  or  1.22 
per  family.  The  number  of  baths  (whose  faucets  were 
included  in  the  total)  was  5.  That  is,  there  was  an  average 
of  121  persons  to  a  tub. 

1  See  Tenement  Conditions  in  Chicago,  p.  108. 

2  Housing   Conditions  in   Philadelphia. 


PHILADELPHIA  309 

The  rentals  of  the  Jewish  families  may  be  judged  by 
those  for  the  district  generally.  Families  occupying  one 
house  paid  $8.78  monthly,  or  $2.32  per  room.  In  houses 
for  more  than  one  family  the  average  was  $5.18  per  apart 
ment  and  $2.40  per  room. 

The  occupations  of  the  heads  of  the  100  Jewish  families 
were  as  follows:  Baker  4,  blacksmith  and  iron  worker  3, 
button-maker  1,  buttonhole-maker  1,  carpenter  and  cabinet 
maker  4,  cigar-maker  4,  cobbler  and  shoemaker  4,  cooper  1, 
driver  and  ,  expressman  4,  fruit  huckster  and  fruit-stand 
dealer  9,  glazier  1,  hatmaker  3,  horse  dealer  1,  Jewish  teach 
er  2,  junk  dealer  1,  laborer  1,  laundryman  2,  leather  worker 
3,  masseur  1,  nurse  1,  operator  on  clothing  5,  optician  1,  pic 
ture  framer  1,  polisher  1,  presser  3,  safemaker  1,  salesman  1, 
shirtmaker  4,  shopkeeper  10,  tailor  10,  ticket  collector  1,  tin 
smith  3,  trunkmaker  1,  unskilled  employee  in  factory  7. 

In  the  houses  referred  to  we  have  illustrations  largely  of 
poor  conditions  and  ill-kept  surroundings.  It  is  doubtless 
true  that  in  the  matter  of  housing,  so  far  as  can  be  present 
ed  by  average  statistics,  no  highly  flattering  results  are  to 
be  adduced  with  reference  to  a  number  of  sections  in  the 
down-town  portion  of  the  city.  The  results,  to  be  sure, 
show  standards  on  the  whole  not  deficient  as  compared 
with  surrounding  populations  of  foreign  immigrants  and 
would  in  many  respects  be  on  a  par  with  American  fam 
ilies  of  the  same  economic  status. 

If  we  now  proceed  more  generally  we  shall  find  that 
among  the  immigrant  Jewish  population,  with  economic 
strides  there  have  been  made  vast  social  strides.  A  num 
ber  have  moved  into  what  are  regarded  as  more  respectable 
streets,  where  the  surrounding  conditions  are  more  attrac 
tive,  the  houses  better  built  and  modernized,  with  advan 
tages  of  good  plumbing,  ample  water  accommodation,  well 
ventilated  rooms  and  the  like;  and  they  have  been  fur 
nished  in  a  becoming  manner.  So  that  when  one  steps  into 
one  of  these  homes  of  the  Russian,  Roumanian  or  Hun 
garian  Jew  of  better  grade  and  should  have  any  precon 
ceived  notions  as  to  dirty,  ill-smelling  apartments  in  the 
"  slums,"  he  will  be  quickly  disillusioned,  and  will  find  a 
superior  state  of  affairs.  He  will  see  in  the  family  a  social 
attractiveness,  an  intellectual  interest,  and  an  enthusiastic 
whole-souledness  that  may  at  times  take  him  aback,  and  he 
may  be  compelled  to  admit  that  the  family  has  even  some 
points  of  superiority  over  many  of  his  acquaintances  who 


810  HEALTH  AND  SANITATION 

do  not  live  in  the  "  slums  "  and  who  pretend  to  be  in  an 
"  advanced  "  state  of  mind.  And  the  description  does  not 
necessarily  apply  to  families  which  have  progressed  to  a  fair 
state  of  comfort.  It  has  equal  application  to  large  num 
bers  of  persons  of  modest  income  who  keep  their  homes 
tidily,  who  live  in  small  streets  in  small  houses,  but  who 
nevertheless  maintain  an  appearance  superior  to  that  of 
their  neighbors.  I  know  a  number  of  such,  but  cannot 
bring  out  their  existence  in  a  statistical  statement  covering 
any  particular  block,  for  they  are  in  scattered  groups. 

When,  therefore,  we  cast  up  the  account  of  the  im 
migrant  Jew  on  the  score  of  cleanliness  we  must  take  into 
consideration  these  families,  for  they  give  tone,  dignity 
and  worth  to  the  population,  and  nowhere  can  be  found 
an  immigrant  class  which  shows  the  advanced  state  which 
these  show. 

In  all  my  wanderings  in  the  southern  section  of  the  city 
I  have  rarely  seen  a  drunken  Jewish  man.  My  experiences 
with  reference  to  other  nationalities  of  all  sorts,  including 
native  Americans,  would  place  the  immigrant  Jewish  pop 
ulation  at  the  head  of  the  list  of  the  non-drunken  portion 
of  the  community.  The  temperateness  of  the  Jewish  pop 
ulation  and  of  the  Russian  Jewish  population  in  particular 
is  so  patent  a  fact,  even  to  the  ordinary  observer,  that  there 
is  hardly  any  necessity  for  dwelling  on  the  subject.  But 
it  must  be  taken  into  consideration  to  the  credit  of  this 
element  whenever  detractors  may  bring  charges  against  it, 
for  a  people  that  will  preserve  itself  against  the  evils  of 
drink  is  entitled  to  be  regarded  as  in  a  most  progressive 
state  of  civilization  and  to  be  counted  as  in  so  far  a  de 
sirable  factor  in  the  community.  Those  who  see  the  evil 
moral  and  economic  consequences  of  drunkenness  among 
other  portions  of  the  community  cannot  gainsay  this. 

Russian  tea  may  be  said  to  be  a  national  beverage.  It  is 
quite  common  to  observe  this  drunk  in  the  homes,  the 
societies,  and  the  cafes  of  the  Russian  Jewish  popula 
tion. 

There  is  a  very  prevalent  habit  of  cigarette  smoking. 
With  the  college  young  man  the  cigarette  habit  sometimes 
gives  way  to  that  of  the  pipe.  With  the  prosperous  busi 
ness  man  the  cigarette  is  likewise  replaced  by  the  cigar. 
But,  as  a  rule,  the  cigarette  may  be  said  to  be  the  prevail 
ing  means  of  inhaling  tobacco  among  the  Russian  Jewish 
population.  In  his  hours  of  relaxation,  therefore,  we  may 


PHILADELPHIA  311 

think  of  the  Russian  Jew  with  his  Russian  tea  and  his 
cigarette. 

Let  us  now  take  up  the  subject  of  health  and  disease 
among  this  population. 

"  Slums  Free  of  Disease  "  was  the  heading  of  an  ac 
count  in  one  of  the  Philadelphia  newspapers  in  the  sum 
mer  of  1903.  The  article  stated:  "  The  fact  that  not  a 
single  case  of  smallpox  has  existed  in  that  section  of  the 
city  known  as  the  '  slums  '  during  the  present  spread  of 
the  disease  and  the  consequent  absence  of  the  vaccinating 
corps  in  that  locality  was  thus  explained  by  an  official  of 
the  Bureau  of  Health  to-day :  '  In  every  foreign  country, 
with  the  exception  of  England,  compulsory  vaccination  is 
in  force,'  he  said.  i  Those  who  might  have  escaped  the 
vigilance  of  the  physicians  or  who  hail  from  England  are 
inspected  before  they  are  permitted  to  land  in  this  country, 
and  if  they  have  not  been  successfully  vaccinated  they 
must  submit  to  the  operation,  or  go  back. 

"  '  Then,  again,  their  children  are  not  allowed  to  enter 
the  public  schools  until  they  have  been  vaccinated,  so  you 
can  readily  see  that  the  people  in  the  slum  district  are  the 
best  vaccinated  in  this  city. '  : 

Whether  this  is  the  whole  explanation  or  not,  I  do  not 
know,  so  far  as  concerns  the  various  elements  of  the  popu 
lation,  but  it  will  be  noted  further  on  that  in  regard  to  the 
Jewish  element,  there  is  a  special  reason  in  the  wide-spread 
belief  in,  and  practice  of,  vaccination. 

Not  only  was  there  comparatively  less  spread  of  small 
pox  in  the  lower  wards  of  the  city,  but  also  diphtheria, 
scarlet  fever  and  typhoid,  of  which  diseases  epidemics 
raged  in  portions  of  the  other  parts  of  the  city.  No  deduc 
tion  can  be  made  in  regard  to  this  in  behalf  of  the  Jews  in 
the  down-town  wards  of  the  city,  except  that  they  shared 
with  their  neighbors  the  absence  of  epidemic  in  these 
diseases. 

I  have  availed  myself  of  some  observations  in  regard  to 
phases  of  the  subject  under  discussion,  which  have  been 
made  by  two  Philadelphia  physicians. 

The  following  in  regard  to  diseases  among  the  im 
migrant  Jewish  population,  with  special  reference  to  con 
ditions  in  Philadelphia,  is  by  Dr.  David  Riesman,  and  was 
presented  as  a  discussion  on  a  paper  on  "  Health  Prob 
lems  of  the  Jewish  Poor,"  read  by  Dr.  Maurice  Fishberg, 


312  HEALTH  AND  SANITATION 

of  New  York,  at  the  Jewish  Chautauqua  Summer  As 
sembly  in  Atlantic  City,  N.  J.,  July,  1903 : 

The  problems  that  present  themselves  to  those  engaged 
in  an  effort  to  ameliorate  the  condition  of  the  Jewish  poor 
may,  from  the  medical  standpoint,  be  stated  as  follows: 
(1)  What  diseases  afflict  the  Jewish  poor?  (2)  Why  do 
those  diseases  afflict  them?  (3)  How  can  these  diseases  be 
prevented  ? 

The  Jewish  poor  are,  of  course,  subject  to  the  same 
maladies  as  is  the  general  community  in  which  they  live. 
Scarlet  fever,  diphtheria,  measles,  influenza,  whooping 
cough,  pneumonia  and  typhoid  fever  prevail  among  them, 
according  to  season  and  epidemic  influences.  With  regard 
to  the  first  two,  scarlet  fever  and  diphtheria,  the  records 
of  the  Municipal  Hospital  of  Philadelphia,  as  my  friend, 
Dr.  Jay  F.  Schamberg,  informs  me,  show  the  admission  of 
a  far  larger  number  of  Jewish  children  than  is  warranted 
by  the  ratio  of  these  to  the  general  population.  I  was  in 
deed  startled  to  learn  that  not  less  than  25  per  cent,  of  the 
cases  of  scarlet  fever  had  occurred  in  children  of  Russo- 
Jewish  parentage.  In  the  case  of  diphtheria  the  figures 
are  lower,  but  none  the  less  striking.  It  is  highly  improb 
able,  however,  that  the  terrible  frequency  of  these  two  af 
fections  in  the  children  of  the  Jewish  poor  indicates  any 
racial  tendency;  it  is  much  more  likely  to  be  due  to  living 
in  crowded  quarters,  several  families  usually  being  hud 
dled  together  in  one  house. 

Smallpox,  it  seems,  does  not  so  often  attack  the  Jews  as 
it  does  their  Gentile  neighbors.  Among  2,700  cases  of  that 
disease  received  into  the  Municipal  Hospital  within  the 
last  two  years,  there  was  only  one  Jewish  patient.  This 
remarkable  immunity  is  unquestionably  due  to  the  fact 
that  the  Jews  have  an  abiding  and  most  laudable  faith  in 
the  efficacy  of  vaccination  as  a  preventive  of  smallpox. 
An  unvaccinated  Jewish  adult  is  a  great  rarity. 

The  multitude  of  diseases  due  to  alcoholic  excess,  also, 
are  rarely  met  with  among  the  Jewish  poor;  for  intemper 
ance  in  drink  is  not  common  with  them.  If,  however,  I 
might  judge  from  my  own  limited  experience,  I  should  say 
that  there  is  a  growing  fondness  for  alcohol  in  the  Jewish 
population;  and  that  this  may  in  time  need  to  be  com- 
batted. 

In  addition  to  scarlet  fever  and  diphtheria,  there  are  yet 
other  diseases  to  which  the  Jewish  poor  seem  more  prone 


PHILADELPHIA  313 

than  their  fellow  races.  With  regard  to  some  of  these  it  is 
not  possible  to  give  figures;  and  the  belief  in  a  racial  pre 
disposition  rests  upon  impressions  rather  than  upon  sta 
tistics.  Thus,  disorders  of  the  blood  —  anaemia  and  pur- 

puric  (hemorrhagic)  conditions appear  to  be  more 

prevalent  among  the  Jews.  The  reason  for  this  is,  pri 
marily,  the  deleterious  effects  of  poverty  and  over 
crowding;  and  also  the  insufficient  use  of  green  vegetables 
and  wholesome  food  in  general,  and  probably  the  early 
maturing  of  the  sexes. 

Diseases  of  the  stomach  are  extremely  common  among 
the  Jews,  particularly  among  the  Jewish  poor  —  more  com 
mon  than  they  are  in  other  races  of  this  dyspeptic  country. 
The  cause  of  this  is  not  intemperance  in  eating,  which 
plays  such  an  important  part  in  producing  stomach  trouble 
among  the  general  American  population;  for  the  Russian 
Jews  are  quantitatively  frugal.  Hasty  eating,  however, 
poor  food  — or,  rather  food  unsuited  to  this  climate,  tea 
drinking,  and  perhaps  undue  indulgence  in  soda  water  and 
kindred  beverages, —  all  these  serve  to  produce  gastic  dis-> 
orders.  The  confinement  occasioned  by  the  chief  occupa 
tions  of  the  Jewish  poor  is  also  a  factor,  as  it  is  a  factor 
in  the  majority  of  diseases  afflicting  them. 

Morbid  conditions  of  the  blood  vessels  are  likewise  more 
common  among  them  than  they  should  be  and  than  they 
need  be.  Arterial  diseases,  such  as  hardening  of  the  ar 
teries,  occur  especially  in  the  men,  and  are  in  large  meas 
ure  due  to  the  abuse  of  tobacco  begun  early  in  life.  This 
and  other  excesses  that  I  need  not  specify  are  also  respon 
sible  for  the  frequency  of  palpitation  of  the  heart. 

Erysipelas  is,  I  believe,  a  trifle  more  common  among  the 
Jewish  poor  than  among  the  Gentiles  (though  I  have  no 
extensive  data  with  which  to  substantiate  the  correctness 
of  this  view).  At  the  Philadelphia  Hospital,  among  sixty 
Russian  Jews  admitted  during  the  two  years  from  July, 
1901,  to  July,  1903,  there  were  six  cases  of  erysipelas,  or  10 
per  cent.,  a  percentage  far  larger  than  that  in  non-Jews, 
which  was  only  4.2.  (There  were,  for  instance,  twice  as 
many  cases  of  erysipelas  as  of  rheumatism  among  the  Jews 
admitted. ) 

Dr.  Fishberg  has  most  admirably  discussed  the  prev 
alence  of  tuberculosis  among  the  Jewish  poor;  and  my 
friend,  Dr.  S.  Solis-Cohen,  did  much  on  a  former  occasion 
to  hring  this  important  matter  before  the  public.  They 


314  HEALTH  AND  SANITATION 

have  covered  the  subject  so  fully  that  I  can  add  nothing  to 
what  they  said. 

Of  the  frequency  of  diabetes,  to  which  the  poor  Jews  are 
probably  not  quite  so  prone  as  their  wealthy  co-religionists, 
I  need  not  speak.  We  know,  at  present,  too  little  about  the 
causes  of  the  disease  to  make  preventive  measures  possible. 

The  exceeding  prevalence  of  nervous  affection  among  the 
Jews  is  recognized  as  an  axiom  in  medicine.  Nearly  all 
writers  upon  nervous  diseases,  including  insanity  and 
idiocy,  refer  to  the  fact  and  try  to  find  reasons  for  it.  The 
chief  cause,  it  seems  to  me,  is  heredity  in  the  larger  sense 
—  a  racial  predisposition  transmitted  through  generations. 
For  this  hereditary  taint,  the  grinding  intensity  of  the 
struggle  for  existence  to  which  the  Jews  of  Central  and 
Eastern  Europe  have  for  ages  been  subjected  is  responsible. 
I  need  not  describe  the  deplorable  and  pitiable  conditions 
in  Russia,  whence  the  majority  of  our  poor  Jews  come. 
"  In  all  Europe,"  says  Anatole  Leroy-Beaulieu,  "  there  is 
no  people  poorer,  none  that  is  compelled  to  earn  its  bread 
under  greater  difficulties  than  are  nine-tenths  of  the  Rus 
sian  Jews;"  and  the  noted  Zionist,  Dr.  Mandelstamm, 
says,  with  grim  humor,  that  there  is  no  people  on  which 
experiments  in  starvation  and  in  the  results  of  insufficient 
light  and  air  may  be  made  with  more  ease  than  on  the 
Ghetto  Jews. 

These  down-trodden  Jews  come,  therefore,  to  this  coun 
try  with  a  high-strung,  unstable,  nervous  system,  which  the 
conditions  of  American  life  are  not  likely  to  improve  in 
the  first,  or  even  in  the  second,  generation.  Our  mode  of 
living  is  in  itself  productive  of  various  nervous  disorders. 
Nervous  prostration  (or,  as  it  is  called,  neurasthenia)  had 
been  discovered  in  this  country  by  the  famous  New  York 
physician,  Beard,  and  Dr.  S.  Weir  Mitchell  had  devised 
his  renowned  rest-cure  treatment  for  nervous  disease,  long 
before  the  Russian  hegira  had  begun. 

Some  authorities,  such  as  Professors  Erb  and  Kraepelin, 
of  Heidelberg,  and  the  late  Krafft-Ebing,  have  maintained 
that  in-breeding  is,  among  the  Jews,  a  factor  in  producing 
hereditary  weakness  of  the  nervous  system;  but  Dr.  Mar 
tin  Englander,  of  Vienna,  denies  this,  holding  that  from 
eight  to  ten  millions  of  people  are  sufficient  to  preserve  a 
healthy  race.  He  points  to  the  Americans  —  a  race  pro 
duced  by  the  very  opposite  of  in-breeding,  and  yet  one 
among  which  neurasthenia  is  widely  prevalent.  Among  the 


PHILADELPHIA  315 

older  stocks  of  Jews  in  this  country,  the  Portuguese  and 
the  Germans,  there  has  necessarily  been  some  in-breeding, 
but  apparently  without  harmful  effect.  The  contrary, 
rather,  is  the  case;  the  race  has  been  improved  physically. 
This  improvement  is  noticeable  in  greater  stature  and  in 
the  development  of  a  generally  finer  type  of  men  and 
women. 

Neurasthenia  is  most  common  among  the  Jews,  but  hys 
teria  and  insanity  and  idiocy  are  likewise  frequent.  The 
neurasthenic  Eussian  Hebrew  is  an  interesting  type,  and 
was  aptly  compared  by  Charcot  to  the  Wandering  Jew.  In 
an  entertaining  monograph,  Henry  Meige,  one  of  Charcot 's 
pupils,  traces  the  legend  of  the  Juif-Errant,  and  compares 
it  with  the  actual  conditions  seen  in  the  migratory,  rest 
less  Jews  of  Eastern  origin.  From  the  farthest  corners  of 
Europe,  undismayed  by  the  bitterest  hardships  imposed  by 
poverty,  they  find  their  begging  way  to  La  Salpetriere  at 
Paris.  After  a  few  visits  to  the  famous  clinic,  they  vanish 
as  noiselessly  as  they  come,  wander  back  to  their  far-off 
home  and  by  singing  the  praises  of  the  great  French 
specialists,  induce  others  to  undertake  the  wearisome 
journey. 

How  can  we  prevent  the  spread  of  nervous  affections 
among  the  Jews  ?  How  can  we  eradicate  the  sinister  taint  ? 
Dr.  Fishberg  has  indicated  the  direction  in  which  the  an 
swer  lies.  We  must  improve  economic  conditions. 

There  must  be  less  over-crowding,  shorter  hours  of  work, 
and  rational  recreation.  If  we  cannot  keep  the  Jewish  im 
migrants  from  settling  in  the  large  cities,  we  must  dis 
perse  them  there.  There  is  a  tendency  to  spontaneous  dis 
persion  in  Philadelphia.  Gradually  the  Russian  Jews  are 
migrating  northward  and  southward  from  the  central 
Ghetto,  but  it  will  take  decades  before  they  are  sufficiently 
scattered  to  make  the  hygienic  and  moral  surroundings 
what  they  should  be. 

The  Jewish  poor  must  be  taught  that  the  new  climatic 
conditions  require  the  adopting  of  another  sort  of  food. 
They  must  be  instructed  in  the  harmfulness  of  the  abuse 
of  tobacco. 

I  should  also  like  to  see  them  cultivate  the  manly  sports 
—  baseball,  football,  rowing,  swimming  —  which  do  much 
to  develop  the  body  and  to  imbue  the  mind  with  a  spirit  of 
self-respecting,  fearless  manhood. 

Tuberculosis,,  that  other  great  scourge,  can  best  be  com- 


316  HEALTH  AND  SANITATION 

batted  by  education,  under  the  asgis,  as  Dr.  Fishberg  has 
properly  said,  of  charitable  organizations  assisted  by  medi 
cal  advisers.  Out-door  life  and  participation  in  the  na 
tional  sports  will  help  to  develop  the  chest,  which  is  decid 
edly  smaller  in  proportion  to  height  than  that  of  non-Jews. 
The  dissemination  of  knowledge  regarding  the  communica- 
bility  and  the  prevention  of  tuberculosis  that  has  been  un 
dertaken  with  such  good  results,  first  by  Dr.  Biggs,  of  the 
New  York  Board  of  Health,  and  now  by  the  authorities  in 
Philadelphia,  Cleveland,  and  other  cities,  will  do  much  to 
lessen  the  frequency  of  the  dreaded  disease.  Establishing 
sanatoria  near  large  cities  will  also  prove  of  great  benefit, 
as  it  will  render  possible  an  earlier  treatment  of  the  dis 
ease  ;  and  this  is  essential  if  a  cure  is  to  be  effected. 

With  all  his  proverbial  tenacity  of  character,  the  Jew, 
especially  the  Eastern  Jew,  is  physically  and  psychically 
extremely  plastic,  and  only  needs  a  reasonably  favorable  en 
vironment  to  develop  into  a  noble  specimen  of  man.  His 
energy,  intelligence  and  integrity  will  solve  many  of  the 
perplexing  economic  problems,  and  in  that  way  the  sani 
tary  and  hygienic  questions  will  in  part,  at  least,  be 
answered. 

On  the  subject  of  consumption,  the  following  is  taken 
from  the  discussion  of  Dr.  Solomon  Solis-Cohen  on  Dr. 
Fishberg 's  paper  upon  the  same  occasion  as  Dr.  Riesman's 
discussion : 

The  knowledge  of  how  to  prevent  consumption  is  neither 
absent  nor  new.  It  is  old  and  thoroughly  recognized,  but 
it  is  not  acted  upon.  Liability  to  the  infection  of  con 
sumption  comes  from  lack  of  food,  from  overwork,  from 
over-anxiety,  from  lack  of  fresh  air,  from  lack  of  sunshine, 
from  lack  of  cleanliness.  The  infective  agent  thrives  in 
dampness,  darkness  and  filth  —  dies  in  cleanliness,  sun 
shine  and  fresh  air.  You  cannot  shut  people  up,  six  or 
nine  in  a  room  hardly  big  enough  for  one,  and  too  damp, 
dark  and  dirty  for  any, —  you  cannot  have  them  work  in 
doors  under  factory,  tenement  and  sweatshop  conditions, 
sixteen  hours  a  day  for  starvation  wages,  and  expect  racial 
resistance  to  tuberculosis  or  religious  dietary  laws  to  save 
them.  It  is  an  utter  impossibility.  Some  years  ago  Dr. 
Riesman  and  I  went  over  the  records  of  our  dispensary 
service  at  the  Philadelphia  Polyclinic  to  see  approximately 
how  large  a  proportion  the  number  of  consumptive  Jews 
bore  to  the  number  of  consumptives  of  other  social  groups 


PHILADELPHIA  317 

who  came  to  the  same  clinic.  We  found  that  a  very  large 
proportion  —  I  think  something  like  12  per  cent,  of  the 
poor  Russian  Jews  of  Philadelphia  who  applied  to  that  dis 
pensary,  were  consumptive;  but  we  also  found  that  the 
proportion  of  the  consumptives  among  these  poor  Jews 
was  less  by  one-third  or  more  than  that  among  the  poor 
people  of  other  races  who  came  to  the  same  dispensary.  In 
other  words,  the  racial  immunity  apparently  saved  some 
poor  Jews,  but  evidently  did  not  save  all.  Sweeping  con 
clusions  cannot  be  drawn  from  the  experience  of  one  physi 
cian,  no  matter  how  great  that  experience  may  be;  for 
after  all,  any  one  person  has  but  a  very  limited  experience 
compared  with  that  of  the  profession  at  large.  Yet  in  so 
far  as  I  may  draw  guarded  conclusions  from  my  own  ex 
perience,  it  would  appear  that  consumption  is  largely  on 
the  increase  among  the  poor  Russian  Jews  of  Philadelphia ; 
that  the  relative  immunity  to-day  is  less  than  it  was  at  the 
time  Dr.  Riesman  and  I  made  the  investigations  referred 
to,  for  my  Gratz  College  lecture.  I  see  proportionally  more 
Jewish  consumptives  than  I  used  to  see,  and  after  making 
all  necessary  corrections  for  personal  factors,  that  means 
that  the  stress  and  storm  of  the  struggle  for  existence  are 
bearing  more  hardly  upon  them,  that  they  are  more  nar 
rowly  crowded,  more  poorly  fed,  more  excessively  over 
worked,  in  a  more  deplorable  economic  condition.  This  is 
so,  notwithstanding  the  obvious  fact  that  many  among 
those  who  have  come  to  Philadelphia  from  Russia,  during 
the  past  twenty  years,  have  left  the  ranks  of  the  poor  and 
comparatively  poor,  and  entered  into  those  of  the  well-to- 
do  and  the  comparatively  wealthy.  The  large  increase  in 
immigration  and  the  natural  increase  among  those  who  re 
main  very  poor,  continue  to  keep  up  this  disproportion. 


(C)  CHICAGO 

Among  the  many  injustices  of  Russian  despotism  is  her 
cruel  discrimination  against  Karaites,  Stundists,  Finland- 
ers,  and  Jews.  Crowded  as  millions  of  the  latter  are  into 
the  comparatively  small  southwestern  portion  of  Russia 
they  cannot  live  under  conditions  as  favorable  as  they 
might  were  they  permitted  to  settle  in  the  interior  where 
space  is  less  valuable  than  it  is  on  the  frontiers. 

It  is  very  difficult  for  one  who  has  not  visited  the  coun 
try  to  get  a  true  conception  of  the  surroundings  of  the 
Jew  in  "  White  Russia  "  or  "  The  Pale."  Writers  like  Leo 
Errera  and  Harold  Frederic  have  given  us  interesting  liter 
ature  on  this  subject,  but  they  have  been  so  touched  by  the 
intolerance  of  Russian  Christianity  (?)  that  through  their 
sympathetic  minds  we  can  see  only  the  picture  of  a  great 
Inferno. 

The  Russian  immigrant  in  America  tells  a  somewhat  dif 
ferent  tale  from  theirs.  We  must,  however,  remember  that 
his  native  love  of  home  and  the  fatherland  lends  a  rosy 

k  coloring  to  all  his  memories  of  far-away  Russland.  He 
really  loves  his  country  and  hates  only  the  government  re 
strictions  against  him.  He  will  tell  you  that  the  microbe- 
holding,  smell-emitting  air-shaft  of  our  modern  tenement 
is  unknown  in  Russia.  The  tenements  are  rarely  over 
three  stories  high,  and  each  is  provided  with  a  court-yard 
where  the  children  may  play  free  from  the  dangers  and 
temptations  of  the  streets. 

American  sanitary  plumbing  is  the  finest  in  the  world. 
But  about  three-quarters  of  our  population  are  permitted 
to  live  in  homes  unprovided  with  this  new  preventive  of 
disease ;  so  we  are  really  in  this  matter  not  very  far  ahead 
of  Russia.  Laws  for  the  prevention  of  contagious  diseases 
in  America  are  more  rigid  and  more  carefully  enforced 
than  are  those  of  Russia,  which  may  partly  account  for  our 
smaller  child  mortality. 

The  death  rate  among  non-Jews  in  Russia  is  larger  than 
that  of  the  Jewish  population.  This  is  due,  above  all,  to 

318 


CHICAGO  319 

the  temperance  of  the  Jew,  who  rarely  drinks  the  intoxi 
cating  vodka,  and  lives  according  to  the  Mosaic  law.     Al-  i 
though  orthodox  Judaism  is  not  so  strong  as  it  was  a  gen-  I 
eration  ago,  yet  as  habit  is  powerful  there  still  exists  aVJ 
strict  adherence  to  the  customs  of  the  Mosaic  code.     Early 
marriages  are  still  the  rule  and  home  life  throws  its  safe 
guards  about  the  health  and  life  of  the  individual. 

In  Chicago  there  are  Russian  Jews  of  every  class,  from 
the  semi-millionaire  to  the  day  laborer,  from  the  oriental- 
looking  Jew  whose  education  is  purely  Talmudical  to  the 
professional  man  who  occupies  a  prominent  position  in 
modern  literature  or  science. 

Among  the  wealthier  and  the  indifferent  who  do  not  care 
to  live  near  the  orthodox  shops  and  synagogues  we  find,  of 
course,  all  modern  appliances  for  sanitation  and  health. 
These  now  live  on  the  avenues  and  boulevards  where  money 
is  the  open  sesame  to  comfort  and  convenience.  One  would 
hardly  recognize  in  these  people  the  same  human  beings 
who  ten  or  fifteen  years  before  had  lived  on  the  West  Side 
in  uncomfortable  surroundings.  No  people  rise  more  rap 
idly  than  these  so  soon  as  they  find  opportunity. 

This  paper  will  deal  mainly  with  the  poorer  classeSj — 
mechanics,  factory  "  hands,"  small  manufacturers,  shop 
keepers,  clerks,  day  laborers,  and  the  like.  These  are  set 
tled  in  four  main  districts,  viz. :  Englewood,  Brighton 
Park,  the  Northwest  Side,  and  the  West  Side,  in  the  Ninth 
Ward  and  its  vicinity.  Many  have  also  migrated  to  subur 
ban  towns, —  Pullman,  Evanston,  Kensington,  East  Chi 
cago,  South  Chicago  and  Hegewisch.  In  Englewood  rents 
are  low  and  housing  conditions  excellent.  Yards,  bath 
rooms,  and  modern  laundries  are  plentiful.  Here  we  have 
an  example  of  how  the  Russian  Jewish  workingman  and 
his  family  will  live  if  given  the  chance.  While  the  moral, 
financial,  and  educational  status  of  the  people  there  is 
about  the  same  as  that  of  the  Jews  in  the  Ninth  Ward,  no 
one  has  yet  called  the  Englewood  district  a  Ghetto,  nor 
has  anyone  so  designated  the  wards  where  wealthy  Jews 
have  chosen  to  live  near  their  temples,  relatives,  friends 
and  social  or  business  interests. 

The  Northwest  Side  is  the  home  of  many  of  Chicago's 
most  intellectual  Russian  Jews.  There  are  many  artistic 
homes  here  even  where  there  is  little  money,  the  educated 
mother  and  housewife  making  this  possible. 


J 


320  HEALTH  AND  SANITATION 

Brighton  Park  bids  fair  to  become  another  Englewood 
for  the  Jewish  artisan  and  small  trader. 

The  West  Side  district  contains  about  30,000  Russian 
Jews,  who  pay  high  rents  for  the  privilege  of  living  in  in 
sanitary  houses.  Fortunately  conditions  are  not  so  bad 
there  as  they  seem  on  first  sight.  Walking  through  the 
streets  of  the  neighborhood  one  is  shocked  by  the  dirt  and 
disorder.  But  it  is  the  aesthetic  and  not  the  moral  sense 
which  is  outraged.  The  district  is  not  really  a  slum.  Evi 
dences  of  education,  morality,  and  intelligence  are  found 
in  abundance.  With  the  exception  of  incorrigible  boys  and 
petty  gamblers,  there  is  no  vicious  element.  Temperance 
rules  supreme.  Soda  water  is  sold  at  the  grocery  stores  at 
two  cents  a  bottle  and  at  the  stands  for  one  cent  a  glass. 
This  in  summer  and  weak  tea  in  winter  are  the  national 
drinks  of  the  Russian  Jewish  populace.  No  neighborhood 
in  our  city,  with  the  exception  of  Prohibition  districts, 
shows  so  few  saloons  to  the  number  of  population. 

A  growing  demand  for  accommodations  is  causing  land 
lords  to  build  on  yard  space.  Accordingly,  little  children 
are  compelled  to  use  the  streets  for  play  grounds,  and  there 
are  little  children  galore.  Passing  wagons  and  trolley  cars, 
defective  plank  pavements,  disease  breeding  garbage  boxes, 
and  falling  missiles  play  sad  havoc  with  these  innocents 
who  furnish  ample  material  for  the  nearby  clinics  and  dis 
pensaries. 

Boys  and  girls  with  faces  and  frocks  besmirched,  care 
worn  men  and  women,  disorderly  shops,  rickety  shanties, 
which  bring  on  pneumonia  and  rheumatism,  all  on  streets 
shamefully  neglected  by  the  city  authorities,  make  up  a 
scene  which  must  cause  us  to  blush  for  our  much  vaunted 
civilization. 

^)  There  is  the  aloofness  and  indifference  of  those  who  could 

•stf^  ^  £be  a  powerful  help  in  changing  the  state  of  affairs.     They 

•yshould  use  their  influence  for  the  enactment  and  enforce- 

<j£>Pv  '-ment    of    a    law   prohibiting    the    renting    of    apartments 

j   ^?  which  are  not  provided  with  proper  sanitary  appliances. 

Our  West  Side  settlement  of  Russian  Jews  is  essentially 
a  community  of  homes.  The  "  bunk  "  system,  cheap 
lodging  houses,  trashy  restaurants,  and  men's  boarding 
houses  are  conspicuous  by  their  absence.  The  free  lunch 
saloon  is  rare.  Single  men  and  women  without  homes 
either  rent  furnished  rooms  or  board  with  families.  Sel 
dom  will  a  family  take  more  than  one  or  two 


CHICAGO  321 

or  boarders.  The  restaurants  are  high-priced  and  whole 
some.  There  is  no  hotel  in  the  whole  district.  The  poor 
est  individual  pays  a  family  one  dollar  a  week  for  lodg 
ing  and  coffee  or  tea  in  the  morning.  A  penny  roll  for 
breakfast  and  another  for  supper  make  up  the  morning 
and  evening  fare  of  some  of  these  lodgers.  For  dinner 
the  kind  housewife  adds  five  cents'  worth  of  meat  to  her 
pot  for  the  lodger  and  furnishes  the  cooking  free.  Thus 
much  against  his  habit  and  personal  inclination  many  a 
poor  student  or  peddler  lives  temporarily  on  one  dollar 
and  fifty  cents  a  week.  However,  the  large  majority  of 
the  inhabitants  of  the  district  average  about  $3  per  person 
for  board  alone. 

In  some  few  isolated  cases  a  family  occupies  one  room, 
but  usually  the  poorest  have  two  rooms  or  more.  The  ma 
jority  have  three  or  four. 

At  the  Foster  Public  School  1,730  children  were  ques 
tioned  as  to  the  number  of  rooms  occupied  by  their  par 
ents.  The  information  obtained  was  as  follows : 

CHILDREN    CLASSED    ACCORDING   TO    NUMBER    OF    ROOMS    OCCUPIED    BY    THEIR 
FAMILIES 

Having  1  room  for  each  family  22 

"         2   rooms  "        "  "  62 

"          "  195 


778 
305 


215 
70 
79 

"         9       "        •         "  "  1 

"      10       "        "       "          "  2 

«       14       «        «        «          «  j 

Total      1780 

The  majority  of  the  children  in  this  school  are  of  Rus 
sian  Jewish  parentage. 

At  the  Washburne  School  798  were  questioned.  The 
result  was  as  follows : 

Having  1   room  for  each  family  3 


2   rooms 


31 

102 

289 

159 

122 

47 

45 

Total      798 


322  HEALTH  AND  SANITATION 

The  Washburne  is  attended  almost  entirely  by  children 
of  Eussian  Jews.1 

In  the  majority  of  West  Side  homes  among  these  peo 
ple  the  kitchen  is  the  only  room  that  is  suitably  heated 
for  bathing  purposes.  It  is  also  used  for  the  family  sitting 
and  dining  room.  The  statement  has  often  been  made 
that  soap  and  water  are  cheap,  but  what  of  the  warm  pri 
vate  bath-room?  Here  there  are  thousands  of  people  com 
pelled  to  live  under  conditions,  that,  to  say  the  least,  make 
the  bath  at  home  exceedingly  difficult.  Often  the  tired 
workingman  or  workingwoman  and  the  growing  boy  or 
girl  must  wait  until  after  midnight  before  the  only  com 
fortable  room  in  the  flat  is  vacated.  A  real  estate  agent, 
who  has  been  fifteen  years  in  the  Ninth  Ward,  says  that 
in  the  district  east  of  Halsted  Street  there  is  not  one  apart 
ment  in  four  hundred  furnished  with  a  bathroom  or  hot 
water  connections.  In  the  district  bounded  by  Halsted, 
Canal,  West  Twelfth,  and  West  Fourteenth  Streets,  the 
distinctively  Jewish  section,  but  373  out  of  a  population  of 
10,452,  or  2.56  per  cent.,  have  bath  tubs.2  Many  families 
are  moving  west  of  Halsted  Street  in  the  search  for  apart 
ments  with  bath  rooms. 

There  are  some  wealthy  residents  who  occupy  the  few 
modern  steam-heated  flats  which  are  in  great  demand. 
There  is  one  model  apartment  house  at  the  corner  of 
Bunker  and  Desplaines  Streets,  but  of  its  twenty-four 
families  only  four  are  Jewish.  These  flats  are  heated  by 
steam  and  have  sanitary  plumbing  and  bath  rooms.  All 
the  rooms  are  light  and  well  ventilated.  There  are 
porches,  flower  boxes,  paved  court-yards,  and  fire  escapes. 
The  rents  are  from  thirteen  to  sixteen  dollars  a  month  for 
a  flat  of  four  or  five  rooms.  The  building  is  under  the 
management  of  an  able  social  settlement  worker,  who  her 
self  lives  in  one  of  the  flats.  She  says  that  after  deducting 
from  the  profits  a  sufficient  amount  to  pay  for  the  natural 
depreciation  in  its  value  the  house  pays  five  per  cent,  on 
the  investment. 

Such  buildings,  with  good  sanitary  arrangements,  and 

jjj      I     with  humane  and  intelligent  agents  on  the  premises,  would 

mean  the  saving  of  life  and  health  to  hundreds  of  men  and 

1  These  statistics  were  gathered  through  the  courtesy  of  Miss  Flowers  of  the 
Washburne    School   and   the   Misses   Schgoldager   and   Bernstein   of  the   Foster 
School. 

2  Tenement  Conditions  in  Chicago,   p,,   108. 


CHICAGO  323 

women  in  our  crowded  city  districts.  In  our  West  Side 
community  of  Jews  such  tenements  would  help  to  lift  the 
lives  of  the  young  from  discomfort  and  despair  to  hap 
piness  and  hope.  It  must  be  admitted,  however,  that 
agents  would  sometimes  be  necessary  to  combat  the  slovenly 
housewife;  not  all  the  defects  are  due  to  the  landlord. 

At  present  the  Ninth  Ward  is  covered  with  small  frame 
and  brick  buildings  originally  intended  for  one  or  two 
families,  but  now  subdivided  into  four  or  five  apartments 
which  rent  for  from  $2  to  $3  a  month  per  room. 

A  few  enterprising  landlords  have  already  put  up  in 
sanitary  tenements  with  dark,  disease-breeding  bed-rooms. 
The  time  seems  very  near  at  hand  when  Chicago  is  to  de 
velop  the  tenement-house  horror  as  it  exists  in  New  York 
City.  Shall  we  not  take  warning  now  and  prevent  it? 
Mere  laws  on  the  statute  books,  we  have  found  by  experi 
ence,  do  not  wholly  protect  the  poor  from  municipal  evils. 
The  workingman  is  often  too  busy  earning  a  living  to  be 
able  to  protect  his  interests.  The  leisure  class  should  ex 
ercise  eternal  vigilance  for  the  proper  housing  of  the  poor. 
Behind  the  laws  are  needed  interested  individuals  con 
stantly  watching  in  reference  to  their  enforcement. 

Ninth  Ward  plumbing  and  closets  are  unhygienic. 
Barely  is  there  a  house  fitted  with  screens.  Thus,  flies 
carry  disease  germs  from  house  to  house.  There  are  no 
laundry  rooms.  Chimneys  are  defective.  The  rooms  are 
cold  and  smoky  during  our  long  winters  and  close  in  sum 
mer.  Frequently  dead  rats  lie  rotting  beneath  the  flooring 
in  these  old  shanties.  Pavements  are  broken  and  steps  are 
rickety.  Ventilation  without  the  admission  of  draughts  is 
almost  impossible.  Yet  who  cares?  The  poor  tenant  can 
not  be  forever  quarreling  with  his  landlord,  who  will  tell 
him  to  move  on  if  he  does  not  like  conditions.  There  are 
people  who  could  alter  these  things  if  they  would.  Some 
have  suggested  moving  the  Jewish  people  from  the  Ninth 
Ward  to  other  places.  This  would  still  leave  the  same  vile 
buildings  to  be  inhabited  by  other  human  beings.  The 
erection  of  model  dwellings  and  shops,  with  the  abolition 
of  the  street  stand,  would  remedy  many  of  the  evils. 

That  the  Russian  Jew  does  not  belong  to  the  life  he  is 
compelled  to  live  in  the  Ninth  Ward  is  proven  by  the  gen 
eral  discontent  among  the  residents,  who  live  there  only 
because  of  strong  business  or  social  ties  which  make  it 
seem  to  them  necessary.  Many  regret  this  necessity,  but 


324  HEALTH  AND  SANITATION 

like  the  majority  of  humanity  are  ruled  by  circumstance. 

This  neighborhood  supports  six  or  more  large  private 
bathing  establishments,  which  charge  from  fifteen  cents  to 
twenty-five  cents  each  for  baths.  Besides,  the  barber  shops 
do  a  thriving  business  by  furnishing  baths  for  the  younger 
men  and  boys.  The  women  and  older  men  patronize  the 
Russian  bathing  establishments.  They  are  too  expensive 
for  the  children  and  are  rarely  used  by  the  younger  un 
married  women  whose  income  is  frequently  not  more  than 
$4  per  week.  There  are  many  classes  of  poor  in  a  great 
city.  Each  has  its  virtue.  One  virtue  of  the  poorest  Rus 
sian  Jewish  family  is  that  the  bath  house  is  patronized 
by  them.  Another  is  that  their  standards  of  living  are  not 
low,  as  is  amply  proven  so  far  as  house  rents  go,  by  the 
statistics  in  the  report  of  the  City  Homes  Association, 
"  Tenement  Conditions  in  Chicago." 

If  they  are  not  better  cared  for,  others  as  well  as  they 
are  responsible.  It  is  criminal  to  permit  the  renting  to 
human  beings  of  apartments  which  are  not  better  fitted  for 
that  purpose  than  are  dog  kennels.  The  health  of  a  whole 
city  is  endangered  by  insanitary  conditions  in  any  of  its 
parts.  For  our  own  protection  we  should  insist  on  good 
housing  throughout  the  city. 

You  ask  if  the  Russian  Jew  is  discontented  with  his  sur 
roundings  in  the  Ninth  Ward  why  does  he  not  move  to 
where  rents  are  lower  and  houses  better?  It  is  because 
of  his  peculiar  observances.  He  does  not  ride  on  the  Sab 
bath  day.  Consequently  he  wants  to  live  within  walking 
distance  of  his  orthodox  synagogue.  He  desires  to  eat 
food  which  can  be  obtained  only  at  the  kosher  (ceremonial 
ly  clean)  shops.  Consequently  he  wishes  to  live  near  these 
shops.  Often  he  can  speak  only  the  Yiddish  language. 
Then,  too,  in  many  cases  he  can  best  earn  his  living  among 
his  own  people.  Sometimes  his  work  or  business  is  within 
walking  distance  and  he  wants  to  save  care  fares.  He  has, 
too,  family  ties  and  social  interests.  Even  if  streets  are 
neglected  and  houses  are  vile,  he  endeavors  to  adapt  him 
self  to  his  environment.  Who  is  to  blame?  He  is,  in  so 
far  as  he  does  not  take  action  to  compel  landlords  and 
city  authorities  to  furnish  sanitary  necessities  and  clean 
streets.  We  all  are,  in  so  far  as  we  heap  cold  "  charity  " 
on  the  community  and  do  not  co-operate  with  its  members 
to  secure  justice.  These  people  give  us  untainted,  splen 
did  material  for  the  future  American  citizen.  They  toil 


CHICAGO  325 

in  factory  and  store  to  supply  our  needs,  to  give  our 
children  wealth,  and  comfort.  We  owe  them,  at  least, 
health-preserving  habitations;  else  our  civilization  is  no 
civilization  and  our  social  ethics  are  worthless. 

A  syndicate  of  the  philanthropic  could  build  model 
dwellings,  shops  and  market  houses.  These  could  be 
rented  at  reasonable  rates  to  bring  a  small  profit.  The 
sharp  landlord  would  be  driven  out  of  business  by  such  an 
organization.  He  could  no  longer  thrive  at  the  expense 
of  human  life  and  health.  Such  a  philanthropic  corpora 
tion  would  have  large  profits  in  the  joy  of  having  saved 
families  from  disease  and  disgrace.  The  aesthetic  sense  of 
the  tenant  would  be  stimulated  by  making  order  and 
cleanliness  possible  and  easy.  Prizes  offered  in  the  schools, 
synagogues,  and  chedarim  (Hebrew  schools)  for  well  kept 
homes  and  shops  might  wholly  change  the  character  of  the 
ward.  Much  municipal  carelessness  would  be  checked  by 
a  powerful  association  working  in  co-operation  with  the 
tenants  of  insanitary  neighborhoods.  At  present  greedy 
landlords  club  together  to  pay  lawyers  to  prevent  even 
much  needed  street  paving,  thus  leaving  catch  holes  and 
culture  beds  for  all  sorts  of  disease  germs  on  our  wooden 
pavements. 

Those  who  think  they  will  scatter  the  Russian  Jewish 
people  over  other  parts  of  the  city,  when  every  law  of 
nature,  circumstance  and  religion  causes  them  to  segregate 
as  they  do  on  the  West  Side,  are  much  mistaken.  What  they 
may  hope  to  do  is  to  change  the  character  of  the  so-called 
Ghetto.  For  the  last  thirty  years  thinkers  and  philan 
thropists  here  in  Chicago  have  tried  to  help  the  Jewish 
poor.  They  are  learning  that  to  know  and  truly  help  a 
people  one  must  live  with  them,  love  them,  and  extend  to 
them  not  only  charity  but  friendship,  sincere,  earnest, 
and  on  a  plane  of  equality.  Men  here  have  talked  and 
talked  of  the  "  poor  Russian."  The  "  poor  Russian  ': 
who  knows  that  he  is  a  strong,  great-hearted  Russian  in 
all  but  money  has  both  laughed  and  wept  as  he  has  lis 
tened  to  these  discussions.  You  have  not  heard  his  answer 
because  he  has  not  always  had  the  command  of  your  lan 
guage.  Read  his  Yiddish  newspapers.  You  will  find  his 
answer  in  them.  He  has  for  generations  been  a  student 
and  thinker.  He  is  rapidly  learning  our  language.  He 
will  work  out  his  own  salvation  in  time,  even  though  left 
severely  alone.  The  philanthropist  may  hasten  that  time 


326  HEALTH  AND  SANITATION 

by  judicious  assistance,  or  defer  it  by  "  charity  "  which 
weakens  and  pauperizes.  Those  who  are  ashamed  of  an 
American  Ghetto  —  and  well  they  may  be  —  have  now 
the  opportunity  of  working  for  better  conditions  in  the 
homes  of  their  less  fortunate  co-religionists  and  of  show 
ing  the  world  by  example  that  "  the  fittest  place  for  man 
to  live  is  where  he  lives  for  man. ' '  There  are  wise,  power 
ful,  and  cultured  Jews  in  Chicago.  They  belong  to  the 
Ninth  Ward  as  much  as  to  any  other  and  should  go  there 
frequently  for  its  improvement. 

When  we  consider  the  individual  habits  of  these  people 
we  must  admit  that  all  is  not  as  we  would  wish.  The 
Russian  Jewish  housewife,  although  a  good  cook,  is  a  poor 
laundress.  She  is  often  not  methodical  or  neat.  She  is 
intensely  sociable  and  will  frequently  be  found  visiting 
her  neighbors  when  she  should  be  cleaning  her  sinks  or 
arranging  her  closets.  She  will  wear  soiled  aprons,  and 
have  many  useless  dust-holding  gewgaws  in  her  home  and 
is  careless  of  her  personal  appearance.  Her  husband 
often,  in  the  words  of  George  Eliot,  "  matches  her." 
They  are  both  greatly  overburdened  by  work  and  care. 
They  will  sit  down  to  brood  over  their  troubles  in  the 
new  country  and  thus  sap  the  energy  and  ambition  which 
should  be  used  for  the  betterment  of  their  home  surround 
ings. 

Fortunately,  they  have  many  religious  holidays.  The 
advent  of  these  and  of  the  Sabbath  rouses  them  from  their 
lethargy.  There  is  a  general  cleaning  of  the  houses. 
Children  are  bathed  in  preparation  for  the  holidays  and 
the  Sabbath.  Men  and  women  flock  to  the  bath-houses. 
Special  meals  are  prepared.  Tired  brains  and  bodies  are 
given  a  much  needed  rest.  The  Passover  in  the  spring  is 
the  occasion  for  a  complete  housecleaning  and  for  remov 
ing  every  crumb  of  leavened  bread.  With  the  bread 
crumbs  many  a  heap  of  dust  and  microbes  is  also  re 
moved. 

A  large  number  of  the  younger  generation  have  de 
parted  from  the  ways  of  their  ancestors  in  the  matter  of 
/Religion.  So  long  as  they  are  single,  and  when  away  from 
/home,  they  eat  without  scruple  foods  prepared  in  other 
V  /  than  Orthodox  Jewish  ways.  When,  however,  they  marry 
and  have  homes  of  their  own,  the  wishes  of  parents,  other 
relatives,  or  friends  are  respected  and  a  new  orthodox 


CHICAGO  327 

home  is  established.  Besides,  their  tastes  are  for  custo 
mary  Jewish  foods. 

The  minimum  for  which  a  family  of  six  can  ordinarily 
have  its  table  supplied  is  about  a  dollar  a  day.  Half  the 
food  is  bought  at  the  Jewish  shops.  The  women  are  ex 
pert  fish  buyers.  They  will  accept  none  but  the  freshest. 
Orthodox  Jews  will  buy  only  live  fowl  or  those  newly 
killed  by  their  own  experts,  who  sever  the  blood  vessels 
of  the  throat  and  drain  the  animal  of  its  blood.  The  blood 
is  still  further  removed  from  all  meat  by  soaking  and 
salting.  After  killing  the  animal  the  schochet  (slaughter 
er)  looks  over  it  for  any  diseased  or  abnormal  condition, 
which  if  found  makes  it  immediately  unfit  for  food  and 
causes  its  rejection.  No  Jewish  butcher  of  repute  among 
the  people  will  sell  meat  which  is  over  six  days  old. 

As  their  religion  enjoins  waiting  six  hours  between  the 
meat  and  the  milk  meal,  and  as  the  Jewish  housewife  has 
an  entirely  separate  set  of  dishes  for  the  meat  meal— 
which  is  prepared  with  much  care  —  she  becomes  a  splen 
did  ally  of  the  physician  in  the  treatment  of  rheumatism 
and  similar  diseases.  Few  of  the  orthodox  families  have 
more  than  one  meal  a  day  at  which  meat  is  served. 

The  Jew  is  supposed  to  search  the  carcass  of  any  animal 
used  as  food,  to  ascertain  whether  it  is  diseased.  This, 
unfortunately,  is  not  done  according  to  our  modern  knowl 
edge  of  infectious  diseases,  so  that  the  ritual  search  of  the 
schochetim  (slaughterers)  who  are  employed  by  the  great 
stockyard  packers  here  amounts  to  almost  nothing  as  a 
preventive  of  any  disease  other  than  tuberculosis.  The 
very  careful  examination  of  the  lungs  results  in  discarding 
the  tubercular  animals. 

The  orthodox  housewife  is  compelled  to  be  minutely 
careful  in  the  selection  of  food.  As  the  maggot  is  forbid 
den  food,  she  will  not  buy  factory  cheese.  She  carefully 
picks  cherries,  prunes  and  other  fruits.  Cereals  are  tested 
on  a  warm  tin  plate  in  the  search  for  maggots.  Cabbage 
is  carefully  picked  for  insects.  Foul  vegetables  cannot  be 
used. 

The  wine  cup  is  in  universal  use  for  ceremonial  purposes 
on  all  holidays  and  on  each  Sabbath.  The  wine  and 
brandy  bottle  have  their  place  in  every  home.  There  is 
no  Jewish  temperance  organization,  yet  where  can  one  find 
less  drunkenness  and  fewer  saloons  than  in  the  West  Side 
settlement  of  Russian  Jews? 


328  HEALTH  AND  SANITATION 

Tobacco  is  everywhere  in  evidence.  So  are  the  tobacco 
throat  and  nervousness.  The  cigarette  and  pipe  are  the 
boon  companions  of  young  men  and  old.  But  the 
woman  cigarette  smoker  finds  no  place  among  the  Russian 
Jews.  The  orthodox  never  smoke  on  the  Sabbath ;  at  every 
step  theirJrengKj^^ 

~To-1ire~credTt^ofthose  great  educational  factors  among 
Russian  Jewish  Americans,  the  penny  Yiddish  and  Eng 
lish  newspapers,  it  must  be  said  that  modern  ideas  of 
sanitation  and  health  are  being  widely  disseminated.  It 
is,  however,  doubtful  whether  the  newer  laws  will  be  so 
strictly  adhered  to  as  those  that  have  the  adamantine 
binding  of  religion. 

It  is  worthy  of  passing  notice  that  the  Russian  Jew 
seldom  has  the  Roman  nose.  There  seems  to  be  a  de 
cided  difference,  too,  in  the  features  of  the  younger 
immigrants  as  compared  with  the  older. 

Placing  side  by  side  the  statistics  of  two  of  our  Chicago 
hospitals,  one  markedly  non-Jewish  in  the  nationality  of 
its  patients,  the  other  in  which  no  less  than  75  per  cent, 
of  the  patients  are  Russian  Jews,  we  find  in  about  1,000 
cases  in  each  the  following  ratios : 

JEWISH    HOSPITAL  NON-JEWISH    HOSPITAL 

Pneumonia  41  24 

Rheumatism  47  20 

Hernias  56  29 

Neurasthenia  39  17 

Diabetes  5  3 

Delirium   tremens  1  36 

Morphinism  1  6 

Syphilis  4  18 

These  statistics  are  meagre,  roughly  compiled,  and 
somewhat  inaccurate,  but  they  will  illustrate  what  physi 
cians  coming  much  in  contact  with  Russian  Jews  con 
stantly  notice,  namely,  that  they  are  especially  prone  to 
rheumatism,  neurasthenia,  hernias,  and  pneumonia. 

Dr.  A.  W.  Schram,  of  Chicago,  during  his  residence  as 
interne  at  the  Michael  Reese  Hospital,  told  the  writer  that 
in  his  opinion  the  many  hernias  were  due  to  a  weak  mus 
cularity. 

Rheumatism  and  pneumonia  are  undoubtedly  brought 
on  by  a  lowered  resistance  due  to  exposure  in  our  severe 
climate. 

The  neurasthenia  and  hernias  may  be  attributed  to  the 


CHICAGO  329 

fact  that  the  people  are  descendants  of  students  and  them 
selves  frequently  follow  sedentary  occupations. 

As  the  two  hospitals  above  referred  to  do  not  admit 
patients  suffering  from  tuberculosis,  no  statistics  relative 
to  this  disease  could  be  obtained  from  those  sources.  Dr. 
Maurice  Fishberg1  places  the  death  rate  from  tuberculosis 
among  Jews  at  only  110.56  to  100,000  of  population  as 
against  565.06  per  100,000  of  other  residents  of  New  York 
City. 

Statistics  of  tuberculosis  among  the  living  are  unreliable 
because  frequently  patients  that  are  declared  tubercular 
show  in  course  of  time  no  development  of  the  disease. 
Though  many  leave  their  homes  in  search  of  health,  the 
majority  of  the  really  consumptive  go  home  to  die,  so  that 
the  death  rate  may  be  considered  a  fair  basis. 

Tuberculosis  is  much  too  prevalent  among  Jews  in  Chi 
cago  but  not  more  than  among  other  people;  probably 
less.  Unquestionably  there  is  less  consumption  in  the 
Ninth  Ward  than  in  other  wards  where  equally  criminal 
housing  conditions  prevail. 

Carcinoma  is  comparatively  frequent.  Syphilis  is 
rarely  seen  in  its  worst  forms,  and  the  ulcerated  sore 
throat  almost  never.  General  paresis  and  locomotor 
ataxia  are  also  very  rare  among  orthodox  Jews.  That 
circumcision  is  not  a  preventive  of  specific  disease  is 
proven  by  Chicago  clinics  and  dispensaries. 

Osier2  states  that  the  Jew  is  especially  prone  to  diabetes. 
English  physicians  point  out  that  the  Jew  furnishes  a 
large  proportionate^  quota.. P.f  the  insane.  The  enemy  of 
the  JewTiasHbeen  quick  to  attribute  his  nervous  diathesis  V 
to  greed  for  gain,  and  to  consanguineous  marriages,  and 
diabetes  to  overfeeding.  Has  it  ever  occurred  to  those 
who  make  such  statements  that  the  Jew  comes  of  a  studi 
ous  ancestry,  that  his  weak  muscular  system  and  high 
nervous  temperament  are  caused  by  student  habits  and 
religious  zeal?  The  Jew  is  by  custom  and  religion  the 
most  temperate  man  in  the  world.  Diabetes  is  now  be 
lieved  by  many  to  be  a  disease  of  the  nervous  system. 
Have  the  critics  ever  endeavored  to  ascertain  how  many 
of  their  insane  Jewish  patients  show  a  history  of  consan 
guineous  marriages?  There  are,  unfortunately,  many  of 

1  "  The    Comparative    Infrequency   of   Tuberculosis   among  Jews."     American 
Medicine,    November    2nd,    1901. 

2  Practice  of  Medicine,  p.  320. 


330  HEALTH  AND  SANITATION 

our  Russian  co-religionists  in  "  the  living  death  "  at  the 
institutions  for  the  insane  of  Illinois  at  Elgin,  Watertown, 
Kankakee,  and  Dunning.  In  the  few  cases  which  I  have 
been  able  to  investigate  I  have  not  found  one  with  a  his 
tory  of  the  marriage  of  near  relatives.  It  is  to  be  hoped 
that  some  neurologist  will  give  us  ample  statistics  on  this 
subject. 

Among  a  learned  people,  where  one  rarely  finds  an  il 
literate  man,  where  the  field  for  gaining  a  livelihood  has 
been  narrowed  down  by  the  oppressor,  and  where  religious 
enthusiasm  is  at  its  height,  we  need  not  look  further  for 
causes  of  the  high-strung  nervous  system  and  relaxed 
muscularity  of  the  Eussian  Jew. 

Venereal  disease  is  less  frequent  than  among  many 
other  classes.  Early  marriages  prevent  in  a  measure  that 
promiscuous  association  which  so  often  causes  infection. 
Home  life  and  purity  are  encouraged.  It  is  considered 
an  act  of  charity  to  help  an  orphan  or  friendless  girl  to 
marry.  Frequently  collections  of  money  are  made  to  start 
a  young  couple  in  life.  The  professional  matchmaker 
facilitates  matrimony  among  all  classes. 

The  religious  marital  bath  is  largely  patronized  by  the 
women.  This  institution  was  created  by  men,  who  were 
the  law-makers.  They  forgot  to  make  like  laws  for  them 
selves.  Let  us  hope  that  they  thought  their  superior  in 
telligence  did  not  need  the  the  whip  of  religion,  and  that 
they  were  as  cleanly  as  they  commanded  their  wives  to  be. 
Assuredly  the  religious  bath  is  a  wise  institution  for  the 
ignorant.  Specific  disease  is  not  absent  but  is  rare  even 
among  the  lowest  class  of  orthodox  Jews. 

During  the  year  1900  the  Ninth  Ward  (formerly  the 
Seventh)  had  a  remarkably  low  death  rate  in  spite  of  its 
unfortunate  environments.  To  every  1,000  of  population 
the  proportion  was  11.99.  For  comparison,  the  following 
figures  as  to  death  rates  are  quoted : 

To  every  1,000  of  population,  1900:  Philadelphia, 
19.38 ;  New  York  City,  19.59  ;  Chicago,  14.68 ;  Twenty-third 
Ward,  Chicago,  18.69;  Twenty-ninth  Ward,  Chicago, 
15.62 ;  Ninth  Ward,  formerly  the  Seventh,  Chicago,  11.99. 

The  Twenty-third  and  Twenty-ninth  Wards  have  about 
the  same  number  of  inhabitants  as  the  Ninth  and  similar 
poor  housing  conditions.  The  annual  death  rate  for  sev 
eral  years  for  these  three  wards  is  appended : 


CHICAGO  331 

SEVENTH  TWENTY-THIRD  TWENTY-NINTH 

YEAR  (NOW   NINTH   WARD)  WARD  WARD 

1891  16.80  19.74  19.38 

1892  14.18  17.22  16.43 

1893  11.92  13.38  16.86 

1894  12.34  11.32  14.27 

1895  14.01  14.71  14.81 

1896  12.96  12.27  15.57 

1897  12.34  13.09  13.10 

1898  13.37  14.81  14.37 

These  figures,  taken  from  Chicago's  public  health  re 
ports,  show  a  constant  low  death  rate  for  eight  years  in 
the  Russian  Jewish  settlement. 

Some  writers  have  claimed  for  circumcision  that  it  will 
prevent  zymotic  disease.  The  practice  is  universal  among 
Russian  Jews,  yet  statistics  covering  fifteen  years  for  what 
was  formerly  the  Seventh  Ward  indicate  as  large  a  ratio 
of  deaths  from  this  class  of  cases,  as  compared  with  the 
total  number  of  deaths,  as  in  any  ward  in  Chicago.  The 
experience  of  physicians  here  is  that  typhoid  fever,  scarlet 
fever,  croup,  diphtheria,  smallpox,  diarrheal  diseases  are 
not  especially  respecters  of  the  persons  of  the  orthodox. 
A  writer  in  an  American  medical  journal1  recently  com 
plained  of  permitting  ritual  circumcision  by  any  but  regu 
larly  qualified  physicians.  We  should  reinforce  his  ef 
forts  in  behalf  of  the  Jewish  infant.  Much  mischief  is 
done  by  mohelim  who  are  not  competent  surgeons.  A 
thorough  knowledge  of  asepsis,  haemostasis,  and  stimula 
tion  are  necessary  for  the  work.  It  should  at  least  be 
done  under  the  supervision  of  a  physician,  and  only  with 
his  permission. 

It  is  the  custom  in  orthodox  homes  to  bury  the  dead 
within  twenty-four  hours  after  death,  and  with  but  little 
exposure.  The  body  is  not  allowed  to  remain  on  the  fam 
ily  bedding  but  is  removed  to  the  cold,  bare  floor.  The 
custom  is  crude  and  primitive,  yet  the  early  removal  of 
the  dead  from  among  the  living  is  best  where  disease  may 
cause  infection.  The  washers  of  the  dead  are  not  paid. 
They  do  the  work  as  an  act  of  charity  for  rich  and  poor 
alike.  Flowers  are  forbidden.  Simplicity  is  the  rule. 
Every  visitor  to  the  house  of  the  dead  is  enjoined  to  wash 
his  hands  before  returning  home.  Doctors  who  know  the 
customs  of  the  people  often  advise  the  washers  to  use  an 


1  Ferd.  C.  Valentine,  M.  D.,  "  Surgical  Circumcision,"  Journal  of  the  Ameri 
can  Medical  Association,  March  16,  1901, 


332  HEALTH  AND  SANITATION 

antiseptic  solution  for  their  hands  after  they  have  per 
formed  their  service.  This  should  be  made  compulsory. 

An  insurance  agent  whose  patronage  is  largely  among 
Russian  Jews  states  that  they  are  considered  excellent 
risks  by  all  life  insurance  companies.  I  have  been  unable 
to  procure  figures  as  to  the  average  life  of  the  Russian 
Jew,  but  for  the  Jew  in  general  the  expectation  of  life  is 
greater  than  that  of  the  people  among  whom  he  lives.1 

The  Russian  Jew  is  accustomed  to  self  control.  He 
loves  his  family.  He  is  very  rarely  guilty  of  murder. 
His  wife  and  daughter  are  chaste  and  moral,  statements 
to  the  contrary  notwithstanding.  Sifted  down  we  find 
such  statements  based  largely  on  hearsay  evidence  or  on 
exceptional  cases  of  moral  depravity.  Those  who  know 
the  people  well  and  can  judge  them  without  prejudice 
realize  that  there  is  no  class  who  have  so  little  vice  among 
them.  Who  better  than  the  physician  has  the  opportunity 
of  knowing  the  birth  of  illegitimate  children  ?  To  a  popu 
lation  of  over  20,000  West  Side  Jews  there  are  probably 
not  over  ten  illegitimate  births  a  year.  The  mothers  are 
usually  young,  almost  children,  and  the  fathers  not  always 
Jews.  The  calculation  was  made  after  careful  inquiry 
among  physicians  who  have  a  large  West  Side  practice. 

The  low  dance  hall  does  not  exist  as  we  see  it  in  some 
other  wards  of  large  cities.  The  young  people  do  attend 
dances,  but  in  the  same  way  as  the  sons  and  daughters  of 
the  wealthy  go  to  South  Side  club  "  receptions  "  and 
"  parties,"  namely,  for  innocent  amusement  and  for  socia 
bility. 

The  working  girl  on  the  West  Side  indulges  in  wine 
more  rarely  than  does  her  wealthier  sister.  Her  mother 
does  not  play  poker  and  whist.  If  fashionable  clubs  were 
raided  as  much  as  poor  saloons  the  gambling  passion  would 
be  found  in  the  former  just  as  much  as  in  the  latter. 

The  small  boy  is  the  small  boy  here  as  elsewhere.  He 
needs  careful  guarding  and  guiding.  When  the  home  is 
healthful  and  wholesome  and  the  mother  intelligent  he  may 
be  under  her  watchful  eye.  When  homes  are  cubbyholes 
and  mothers  incompetent,  he  seeks  diversion  elsewhere. 

Russian  Jewish  women  have  been  instructed  by  their  re 
ligion  to  care  for  their  persons,  pots  and  pans.  Educa 
tion  must  be  added  to  cultivate  the  sense  of  the  aesthetic. 

1  See   article   "  Expectation   of   Life,"    Jewish  Encyclopedia,   Vol.   V. 


CHICAGO  333 

We  have  in  these  people  an  illustration  resulting  from  the 
notion  that  it  is  the  woman's  business  on  earth  only  to 
bear  children.  To  care  for  the  home  and  to  train  the 
children  requires  as  cultivated  a  mind  as  does  any  noble 
profession.  This  the  parents  of  the  Russian  girl  have  not 
always  realized.  These  women  have  only  their  intuitive 
sense  of  goodness  and  their  religious  instruction  to  guide 
them.  Sometimes  they  are  stubborn  and  will  not  allow 
the  daughter  to  inaugurate  her  better  way  in  the  home. 
Often  there  is  a  pitiful  breach  between  parents  and  chil 
dren  owing  to  differences  in  tastes  and  ideas. 

Some  of  the  Russian  Jewish  people  are  so  poor  that 
they  permit  their  women  to  be  used  for  teaching  purposes 
during  childbirth.  This  saves  for  them  the  obstetrician's 
fee.  Chicago  medical  colleges  draw  their  obstetrical  in 
struction  largely  from  Jewish  mothers.  From  one  to  four 
students  usually  witness  the  birth  at  the  home  of  the  wom 
an.  Colleges  vie  with  each  other  to  get  these  obstetrical 
11  cases." 

There  are  some  who  see  the  faults  of  the  Russian  Jew 
through  a  magnifying  glass  and  hasten  to  proclaim  them 
from  the  house  tops.  They  do  not  seek  to  find  his  virtues 
and  are  surprised  when  these  are  pointed  out.  Very  often 
his  critics  have  never  associated  with  a  single  Russian 
Jewish  family  on  terms  of  equality.  Their  ideas  are  gath 
ered  from  mendicants  whom  they  meet  in  connection  with 
the  charity  societies.  Many  of  these  critics  know  nothing 
of  the  Russian  Jews  as  a  whole.  They  see  them  through 
a  charity  office,  which  is  a  clearing  house  for  the  poverty 
stricken,  the  unfortunate,  or  the  degraded.  To  judge  a 
whole  people  in  this  way  is  like  judging  the  ocean  by  the 
foam  on  its  waves. 

There  is  a  tendency  now  among  Russian  Jews  to  take 
up  agricultural  pursuits.  An  agitation  is  afoot  to  build 
a  gymnasium  and  to  establish  an  employment  bureau  in 
connection  with  the  proposed  Hebrew  institute.  All  this 
will  help  toward  other  occupations  than  in  shops  and  fac 
tories.  The  Russian  Jew  has  awakened  to  the  necessity  of 
self  help  and  co-operation.  As  he  progresses  he  will  be  on 
a  par  physically  and  financially  where  he  air eudyL-is- men 
tally  and  moraEy.  The  necessity  in  reference  to  Russian 
Jews  in  America  is  to  help  them  to  help  themselves.  They  \/ 
have  intelligence.  With  the  acquisition  of  other  qualities 
they  will  take  an  important  place  in  the  community. 


O       i5 
H 


^ 

H      | 

" 


X 
LAW  AND  LITIGATION 


LAW  AND  LITIGATION 

U)  NEW  YORK1 


The  student  of  the  comparative  criminology  of  the  city 
of  New  York  is  confronted  at  the  outset,  by  the  difficulty 
which  arises  from  the  lack  of  unity  in  the  systems  of  classi 
fication  of  nationalities,  adopted  by  the  various  agencies 
whose  reports  furnish  him  with  his  material.  The  Bureau 
of  Municipal  Statistics  would  perform  a  signal  service  in 
securing  the  adoption  of  a  common  system,  and  the  value 
of  a  vast  amount  of  matter  would  be  increased  a  thousand 
fold.  The  classification  is  too  summary,  in  the  otherwise 
valuable  reports  of  the  Board  of  City  Magistrates,  and  the 
same  may  be  said  of  the  reports  of  the  Board  of  Health. 
While  the  following  study  is  based  partly  upon  estimates, 
the  results  are,  it  will  be  seen,  in  general  confirmed  by 
comparisons  of  actual  counts.  The  estimates  of  popula 
tion  are  calculated  from  the  police  census  of  1895,  which 
places  that  of  the  boroughs  of  Manhattan  and  the  Bronx 
for  that  year,  at  1,851,060.2  The  population  of  the  two 
boroughs  for  1898,  the  year  chosen  for  this  investigation, 
was,  according  to  the  estimate  of  the  Board  of  Health, 
1,976,600.  Besides  the  authorities  named,  recourse  has 
been  had  to  the  report  of  the  Commissioner  of  Immigration 
for  1900,  and  valuable  suggestion  has  been  derived  from 
an  interesting  series  of  papers  published  by  Judge  Deuel, 
president  of  the  Board  of  City  Magistrates,  in  Town 
Topics,5  and  from  his  report  for  the  year  1898.  Judge 
Deuel  reaches  the  comforting  conclusion  that,  upon  the 
whole,  serious  crime  in  New  York  city  is  on  the  decrease. 
His  tables  show  the  same  large  relative  proportion  of  crim- 

1  The  study  by  Mr.   Andrews  was   originally  published  in   the  Year   Book   of 
the  University  Settlement  Society  of  New  York,  1900. 

2  See  Report  of  the  Board  of  Health,  1895. 

3  The   papers   were   published   at   intervals   in    Toivn    Topics   during  the    years 
1897  and  1898,  and  were  summarized  in  two  articles,  which  appeared  during  the 
months   of   September  and   November,    1898. 

336 


NEW  YORK  337 

inality  among  the  natives  of  the  United  States  as  is  shown 
in  the  table  given  below,  and  the  proportionate  contribu 
tions  of  the  various  nationalities  are  constant  enough, 
within  certain  limits,  to  justify  us  in  taking  the  records 
of  a  given  year  as  a  term  of  comparison.  The  basis  for 
the  study  is  the  record  of  persons  actually  held  for  trial 
or  summarily  tried,  by  the  police  magistrates.  It  is  only 
of  these  that  the  details  as  to  nationality  are  given,  and, 
moreover,  they  furnish  better  evidence  of  presumptive 
criminality  than  do  the  mere  arraignments. 

The  lower  East  Side  of  New  York  lies  mostly  within 
the  jurisdiction  of  Essex  Market  police  court,  which  ex 
tends  over  a  region  bounded  by  East  River,  Catharine 
Street,  the  Bowery,  East  Houston  Street,  Clinton  Street, 
Avenue  B,  and  Fourteenth  Street.  An  estimate  of  its 
population  for  1898  places  it  at  351,800,  or  17.85  per  cent, 
of  the  total  population  for  the  boroughs  of  Manhattan 
and  the  Bronx.  In  1897  the  births,  where  both  parents  or 
the  mother  only  were  natives,  constituted  but  14.80  per 
cent,  of  the  whole  number  in  the  district;  while  those  in 
which  the  mother  only  or  both  parents  are  given  as  Polish- 
Russians,  were  40.35  per  cent,  of  the  total  number.  Be 
sides  this,  both  parents  or  the  mother  only  in  30.07  per 
cent,  of  the  total  births  were  classed  as  "  from  other  coun 
tries,"  and  these  include  large  numbers  of  Austrians 
(Poles,  Hungarians),  and  some  Roumanians.  The  German 
births  contribute  5.90  per  cent.,  the  Italian  6.33  per  cent., 
and  the  Irish  but  2.55  per  cent.,  the  mother,  at  least,  be 
longing  to  the  country  named.  These  figures  are  adduced 
to  give  statistical  support  to  what  is  a  matter  of  common 
knowledge;  namely,  that  a  study  of  the  lower  East  Side 
of  New  York  in  any  aspect,  is  a  study  of  the  population 
which  constitutes  the  recent  and  present  immigration  from 
Eastern  Europe  to  this  country,  an  immigration  consisting 
mostly  of  Jews,  cae  of  the  most  important  displacements 
of  sections  of  the  race  known  in  history,  and  one  which 
has  resulted  in  making  of  New  York  perhaps  the  most 
populous  Jewish  city  that  has  ever  existed.  The  tables 
given  below  are  intended  to  show,  first:  the  general  rela 
tions  of  the  lower  East  Side  to  its  chief  lower  criminal 
court,  Essex  Market  court  (the  Third  District),  by  a  com 
parison  of  the  total  number  of  persons  held  for  trial,  or 
summarily  tried  and  convicted  in  this  court  for  certain 
specified  offenses,  with  the  whole  number  so  held  or  so 


338  LAW  AND  LITIGATION 

tried  and  convicted,  in  the  two  boroughs  of  Manhattan 
and  the  Bronx ;  second,  the  proportion  of  the  criminality  in 
the  district  which  may  be  attributed  to  the  Russians,  they 
being  the  only  nationality  of  those  named  above  which  re 
ceives  a  place  by  itself  in  the  classification  adopted  by  the 
Board  of  City  Magistrates.  As  it  is  eminently  true  of  a 
district  which  includes  the  Bowery  within  its  limits,  that 
a  certain  proportion  of  the  crimes  and  offenses  committed 
there  are  committed  by  non-residents,  further  tables  are 
given,  showing  the  proportionate  contributions  of  the  Rus 
sians,  as  well  as  those  of  natives  of  the  United  States  and 
of  each  of  several  nationalities  for  the  two  boroughs,  both 
in  the  matter  of  total  criminality  as  compared  with  popu 
lation,  and  in  the  matter  of  the  commission  of  the  same 
crimes  and  offenses  specified  in  the  previous  table.  If  we 
leave  aside  the  figures  of  population,  and  consider  the  pro 
portionate  contribution  of  a  given  nationality  to  the  sum 
total  of  criminality  as  its  norm  of  social  activity  in  this 
direction,  we  will  have  a  term  which  will  permit  us  to  dis 
cover  in  what  direction  the  given  nationality  is  disposed 
to  sin  most.  And  in  this  comparison  we  will  have  the 
advantage  of  relying  entirely  upon  records,  and  not  at  all 
upon  estimates.  Following  Judge  Deuel's  scheme  in  gen 
eral,  but  not  in  detail,  the  crimes  the  commission  of  which 
involves  the  implication  of  moral  turpitude  head  the  list. 
Then  follow  less  serious  offenses  —  the  assaults  which  are 
mere  quarrels,  the  larcenies  which  may  be  mere  detentions 
of  goods.  Next  are  placed  three  offenses  —  the  keeping 
of  a  disorderly  house,  gambling  and  the  keeping  of  a 
gambling  house  —  in  which  convictions,  and  even  the  ar 
raignments  are  so  few  as  to  suggest  that,  apart  from  the 
difficulty  of  securing  evidence,  they  are  regarded  with  a 
certain  degree  of  benignity  by  the  police.1  In  this  group, 
and  in  the  last,  where  convictions  are  numerically  very 
few,  percentages  would  be  misleading  and  the  actual  num 
ber  of  cases  is  given. 

Table  I.  showing  (1)  The  total  number  of  persons  held 
or  summarily  tried  and  convicted  for  certain  specified  of 
fenses  in  the  boroughs  of  Manhattan  and  the  Bronx  for  the 
year  1898,  as  shown  by  the  report  of  the  Board  of  Police 
Magistrates  for  that  year.  (2)  The  proportionate  con- 

l  This  is  truer  of  the  period  under  consideration  than  it  is  now. 


NEW  YORK 


339 


tribution,  according  to  nationalities,  in  the  two  boroughs 
(3)  The  proportionate  contribution  of  the  population 
within  the  jurisdiction  of  Essex  Market  police  court,  and 
the  share  of  the  Russians  in  the  criminality  of  the  district. 


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Assault  (felony)... 
Burglary  
Forgery  
Homicide  

531 

769 
58 
84 

44.2 
65.4 
58.6 
49  8 

14.3 
9.9 
6.9 
91  4 

7.1 
10.1 

8.7 
11.9 

18.6 
36 
3.4 
6.0 

4.3 
5.9 
10.3 
6.0 

2.6 
0.5 

4.3 
3.1 
3.4 

10.7 

10.5 
23.8 
13.8 
47.6 

23.1 
20.2 
62.5 
12.5 

Larceny  (felony).. 
Robbery  

1,590 
232 

55.6 
69  5 

8.3 
15  6 

10.0 
6.46 

4  5 
3.08 

9.0 

2.7 

0.4 

6.7 
2.7 

18.5 
17.7 

33.0 
9.8 

Assault    (Misde 

meanor)  

1,313 

43  3 

20.8 

7.6 

14.9 

5.9 

1.6 

3.5 

10.7 

35.0 

Disorderly  conduct 
Disorderly   person. 
Intoxication  

23,503 
544 
12,955 

43.2 
43.7 
42  0 

17.1 
12.1 
38  0 

9.7 
17.8 
8.0 

6.2 
23 
1.3 

10.1 
10.6 
1.5 

1.5 
2.2 
1.3 

5.4 
6.6 
2.0 

26.0 
19.8 
27.8 

32.0 

42.6 
3.7 

Larceny  (M  isde- 

meanor)  

2,511 

57  1 

13  2 

9.8 

4.9 

6.1 

0.16 

4.14 

15.4 

27.7 

Vagrancy 

5,149 
9,808 

49.6 
12.2 

25.4 

2.7 

13.6 
4.6 

1.2 
19.5 

1.8 
17.7 

0.6 
33.4 

2.7 

8.6 

19.2 
20.1 

3.25 
62.4 

Violation  of  Corp  .  . 
Ord  

ACTUAL    NUMBER    OP     CASES 


Disorderly  House. 

154 
33 

36 
11 

2 
6 

41 
13 

8 
2 

40 
1 

18 

83 

37 

Gambling    House 

66 

20 

8 

Abduction  

17 

8 

6 

a 

1 
? 

1 
1 

5 
1 

3 

1 
1 

5 
1 

3 
1 

10 

5 

2 

Rape 

36 

10 

8 

2 

15 

2 

1 

1 

7 

1 

Table  II. —  Distribution  of  criminality  according  to  na 
tionality  in  the  boroughs  of  Manhattan  and  the  Bronx,  for 
the  year  1898,  according  to  the  report  of  the  Board  of  City 
Magistrates  for  that  year.  The  percentages  in  the  last 
column  are  taken  as  the  normal  contributions  of  the  given 
nationalities  to  the  total  criminality.  By  comparing  this 
percentage  with  the  percentages  under  the  nationalities  in 
Table  I,  the  offenses  in  which  a  given  nationality  sur 
passes  its  general  average,  and  those  in  which  it  is  inferior 
to  it,  are  shown  : 


340 


LAW  AND  LITIGATION 


Per  cent,    per 

sons  of  given 

nativity   held 

Total     number 

for    trial    or 

Nativity 

Population 

of    persons 
held      for 

Per     cent,     of 
given  nation 

summarily 
tried     and 

trial,     or 

ality  to  total 

convicted,   to 

s  u  m  m  a  r  i- 

population 

whole     num 

ly   tried    and 

ber    so    held, 

convicted 

or   tried    and 

convicted 

United  States 

417  100 

26  995 

21  1 

40  2 

409  200 

13  137 

20  7 

19  5 

434  700 

6  454 

22  0 

9  6 

42  500 

2  030 

2  15 

3  0 

Scotland     

13,800 

555 

0.7 

0.8 

11  900 

982 

0  6 

1  5 

Italy 

120,600 

4,641 

6  1 

6  9 

Russia    

221,300 

5,481 

11  2 

8  2 

Greece    

5,000 

3,659 

0.25 

5.4 

Other     countries.. 

300,500 

3,267 

15.2 

4.9 

Totals     

1,976,600 

67,201 

100.00 

100.00 

"With  17.85  per  cent,  of  the  total  population  of  the  two 
boroughs,  that  within  the  jurisdiction  of  Essex  Market 
court  furnishes  22.13  per  cent,  of  the  total  criminality, 
23.8  per  cent,  of  the  burglaries,  47.6  per  cent,  of  the 
homicides,  far  more  than  its  fair  share  of  the  cases  of 
disorderly  conduct  and  intoxication,  and  somewhat  more 
than  its  proportion  of  vagrants.  It  is  below  its  reputation 
in  its  contribution  of  both  grades  of  assault.  The  Rus 
sians  in  the  district  are  prominent  in  their  commission 
of  forgery,  violation  of  corporation  ordinances,  as  dis 
orderly  persons  (failure  to  support  wife  or  family),  both 
grades  of  larceny,  and  of  the  lighter  grade  of  assault.  The 
reputation  for  general  restlessness  of  the  clientele  of  Essex 
Market  court  seems  to  be  due  to  the  large  proportion  it 
furnishes  of  the  totality  of  arraignments,  namely  28  per 
cent.  These  and  the  numerous  summons  he  is  asked  to 
issue,  often  for  trivial  causes  and  petty  quarrels,  may  well 
furnish  a  magistrate  with  a  vast  amount  of  unpleasant 
business. 

Turning  to  the  other  tables,  we  find  that  the  Russians, 
with  11.2  per  cent,  of  the  whole  population,  furnish  but 
8.2  per  cent,  of  the  criminality,  and  applying  this  last 
figure,  which  is  their  percentage  of  the  total  criminality 
(apart  from  any  question  of  population),  to  the  per 
centages  in  the  list  of  specified  offenses,  we  find  that  they 


NEW  YORK  341 

surpass  their  norm  in  some  of  the  same  offenses  which 
furnish  their  contribution  to  the  criminality  of  the  East 
Side,  i.  e.,  forgery,  felonious  larceny,  as  disorderly  persons, 
and  as  violators  of  corporation  ordinances;  but  that,  as  a 
whole,  they  are  far  below  their  average  in  the  commission 
of  assault.  The  Russian  on  the  East  Side  seems  somewhat 
more  inclined  to  violence  than  his  compatriot  in  the  city 
at  large.  He  is  notably  but  little  addicted  to  intoxication, 
and  furnishes  a  very  small  proportion  of  vagrants.  This 
sobriety  and  this  avoidance  of  the  workhouse  are  also  char 
acteristic  of  the  Italians,  who,  on  the  other  hand,  are  more 
addicted  to  violence.  Further  comparisons  will  be  left  to 
the  reader,  but  attention  may  be  called  to  the  remarkable 
fact  that  the  very  small  population  of  Greeks  in  the  two 
boroughs  commit  more  than  33  per  cent,  of  the  violations 
of  corporation  ordinances.  The  high  contribution  of  na 
tives,  shown  also  in  Judge  Deuel's  table,  is  worthy  of  note, 
in  that  the  relative  position  toward  crime  of  the  native  of 
the  United  States,  as  compared  with  that  of  the  foreign- 
born  citizen  or  resident,  shown  by  the  United  States  census 
of  1890,  seems  reversed.  The  discrepancy  is  probably  due 
to  the  fact  that  the  census  counts  as  foreigners,  the  chil 
dren  born  in  the  United  States  of  parents  born  abroad, 
while  these  appear  as  natives  in  the  tables  here  used. 

Turning  to  the  civil  courts,  we  find  no  such  official  de 
scription  of  their  business  as  is  furnished  by  the  reports 
of  the  Board  of  Magistrates,  but  must  rely  upon  the  sum 
mary  statements  issued  by  the  commissioners  of  accounts, 
supplemented,  it  is  true,  by  the  information  furnished  by 
the  valuable  report  of  the  Legal  Aid  Society.  Thanks  are 
also  due  to  Judge  Roesch,  of  the  Fourth  District  municipal 
court  for  statistics  of  his  court.  The  litigation  of  the 
lower  East  Side  is  transacted  in  the  Fourth  and  Fifth 
District  municipal  courts,  which  include  in  their  jurisdic 
tion  the  district  bounded  by  the  Bowery,  Fourteenth 
Street,  East  River,  and  Catharine  Street.  Below  are  given 
tables  comparing  the  number  of  summons  issued  by  them 
to  those  issued  in  the  First  and  Eighth  Districts.  The 
First  District  transacts  an  abnormally  large  proportionate 
business,  because  it  is  the  down-town  court  most  convenient 
to  the  offices  of  business  men  and  lawyers,  and  the  court 
naturally  used  in  many  cases  where  one  or  both  of  the 
litigants  is  a  non-resident  with  a  business  office  in  the  city 
of  New  York.  The  Eighth  District  court,  on  the  West 


342 


LAW  AND  LITIGATION 


Side,  with  a  jurisdiction  extending  from  Fourteenth  Street 
to  Fortieth  Street,  and  from  Sixth  Avenue  to  Hudson  River, 
is  chosen  for  a  term  of  comparison,  because  a  compara 
tively  large  proportion  of  the  population  which  resorts  to 
it  is  native  born. 


Table  III.  showing  the  number  of  summons  issued  in 
the  specified  district  courts  —  both  actual,  and  per  1,000 
of  population,  and  the  proportion  of  free  to  paid  summons 
in  each  court: 


MUNICIPAL   COURT 

FIRST 

DISTRICT 

FOURTH 
DISTRICT 

FIFTH 
DISTRICT 

EIGHTH 
DISTRICT 

Population,     1898  

56  120 

197,600 

235,100 

163,020 

Population,  proportion  to  total.... 

2.84% 
5  260 

10% 
2,795 

11.9% 
3,239 

8.25% 
1,799 

Free  summonses   

135 

1,650 

1,543 

695 

Total    both    

5,395 

4,445 

4,782 

2,494 

Summons  per  1,000  of  population. 

96.1 

22.5 

20.35 

15.30 

Summons  per  1,000,  1899  

85.5 

22.3 

20.89 

13.01 

Proportion  of  free  summons  

2.5% 

37    % 

32    % 

27.8% 

Proportion  of  free  summons,  1899. 
Nativity:  percentage  of  100  births: 
Both  parents  U    S    

3.6% 

34.6% 
13    % 

38.6% 
8.7% 

32.6% 
38.7% 

42.6% 

42.6% 

2.6% 

Table    IV. —  Municipal    courts  —  Landlord    and    tenant 
cases  ( dispossessions) . 


MUNICIPAL     COURT 

FOURTH 
DISTRICT 

FIFTH 
DISTRICT 

EIGHTH 
DISTRICT 

Population, 
Dispossessio 

« 
« 
« 
« 

1898 

184,895 
6,498 
6,336 
35 
34 
6,575 
35.5 

219,751 

9,372 
9,853 
42.6 
44.8 
9,767 
44.4 

152,399 
4,868 
5,324 
31.9 
34.9 
5,156 
33.8 

ns,    actual    number,    1898  
"               "          1899  

per   1,000     1898  

"         "         1899  

actual    number,    1900  

per    1,000,    1900  

These  tables  reveal  it  is  true,  a  somewhat  greater  tend 
ency  to  resort  to  litigation  on  the  East  than  on  the  West 
Side;  between  5  and  9  more  people  in  1,000  apply  for  a 
summons  on  the  East  Side  than  do  in  the  Eighth  District. 
But  they  reveal  more  strikingly  the  poverty  of  the  dis 
trict,  in  the  large  proportion  of  free  summonses  issued. 
For  a  free  summons  can  be  issued  only  when  the  suit  is  for 
a  sum  of  less  than  $50,  or  when  a  person  sues  "  in  forma 


NEW  YORK  343 

pauperis."  The  relatively  greater  number  of  evictions  is 
evidence  of  the  same  poverty,  and  so  is  the  large  business 
done  by  the  East  Side  Branch  of  the  Legal  Aid  Society. 
This  business  consists  largely  of  efforts  to  recover  small 
sums  of  money  due  as  wages ;  $15  would  be  a  high  average 
for  all  the  claims  brought  to  its  notice.  Many  letters  are 
written  for  the  recovery  of  sums  of  less  than  $1,  and 
suits  brought  for  the  recovery  of  $5,  and  of  even  smaller 
sums.  Seventy-five  per  cent,  of  its  business  is  done  for 
Polish  and  Eussian  Jews,  50  per  cent,  of  the  remainder  for 
Austrian  and  Roumanian  Jews. 

Of  the  total  number  of  judgments  obtained,  quite  a 
large  number  are  returned  unsatisfied  (no  larger  a  pro 
portion,  however,  according  to  the  society's  marshal,  than 
in  other  districts  of  the  city),  and  this  fact  might  be  ar 
gued  in  support  of  the  accusation  that  the  East  Side  acts 
upon  a  low  standard  of  commercial  honesty.  But  a  com 
parison  instituted  in  this  manner  is  not  fair.  Of  the 
total  number  of  applications  to  the  society,  many  are 
settled  without  recourse  to  the  courts,  and  many  are  set 
tled  before  judgment.  In  a  list  of  261  suits  examined,  88 
were  dismissed  or  discontinued,  or  resulted  in  judgments 
for  the  defendant;  79  were  settled  or  reported  settled;  39 
judgments  were  satisfied,  thus  leaving  55  cases  or  a  little 
more  than  25  per  cent,  only,  of  executions  returned  unsat 
isfied.  Quite  as  consonant  with  the  facts  at  hand  as  the 
theory  of  commercial  dishonesty  would  be  the  one  of 
the  prevalence  of  a  spirit  of  enterprise  out  of  proportion 
to  the  capital  of  the  community;  and  the  frequency  of 
settlements  before  final  judgment  may  well  mean  that  in 
a  majority  of  cases  the  cause  of  the  non-payment  of  wages 
is  the  sheer  inability  to  pay.  With  regard  to  the  accusa 
tion  of  untruthfulness  so  freely  brought  against  the  liti 
gants  of  the  district,  statistics  are  silent,  and  the  matter 
must  be  one  of  personal  impression.  In  the  course  of  an 
experience  of  several  months  in  the  East  Side  office  of  the 
Legal  Aid  Society,  the  writer  believes  that  usually  he  has 
listened  to  the  truth,  often  colored,  of  course,  by  the  bias 
of  the  relator.  The  actual  and  complete  denial  of  a  claim 
is  not  frequent. 

To  sum  up:  The  interpretation  of  these  figures  seems 
to  show  that,  judged  by  the  records  of  the  police  courts, 
the  native  of  the  United  States  is,  in  the  city  of  New  York, 
at  least,  a  more  frequent  criminal  than  is  the  foreign-born 


344  LAW  AND  LITIGATION 

resident  or  naturalized  citizen.     They  confirm  to  a  certain 
degree  the  reputation  of  the  lower  East  Side  for  general 
lawlessness,  but  absolve  the  Jew,  as  judged  by  the  Russian, 
who  is  shown  to  constitute  a  probably  preponderating  ele 
ment  in  the  population,  from  anything  like  a  proportion 
ate  contribution  to  this  lawlessness,  excepting  as  to  a  few 
specified  offenses.     Examining  the  record  of  the  Russian 
in  the  city  at  large,  it  is  found  that  he  furnishes  a  low 
proportion   of  the   general   criminality,   with   a  relatively 
high  percentage  in  the  matters  of  forgery,  felonious  lar 
ceny,  refusal  or  inability  to  support  his  family,  and  in  the 
violation  of  corporation  ordinances.     The  records   of  the 
civil  courts  seem  to  show  him  to  be  rather  more  litigious 
than  the  average  .citizen,  but  they  show  him,  above  all,  to 
be  poor.     As  to  the  matter  of  commercial  dishonesty,  the 
statistics  at  hand  do  not  justify  the  accusation,  in  more 
than  a  limited  degree,  and  as  to  that  of  untruthfulness, 
they   are   silent.     A  low   criminal   record,   somewhat   liti 
gious,   very   poor,  yet  furnishing   an   extremely  low  con 
tingent  to  the  vagrant  classes,  these  are  the  characteristics 
of  the  East  Side  Jew,  as  judged  by  the  Russian.     If,  from 
the  economic  standpoint  his  very  poverty  renders  him  an 
undesirable    competitor,    his    combination    of   thrift   with 
sobriety   and  his   slight   tendency  to   crime   may  well   be 
set  off  as  compensating  qualities  in  any  estimate  of  his 
value  as  a  future  citizen. 


Thirty  years  ago  the  conviction  of  a  Jew  for  a  felony 
was  almost  unheard  of  in  the  city  of  New  York.  To-day 
there  is  not  one  penal  institution  within  the  area  of  the 
Greater  New  York  which  does  not  harbor  some  offenders 
of  the  Jewish  people. 

It  is  not  difficult  to  realize  the  effect  of  having 
thousands  of  Russians  and  other  wandering  Jews  and 
their  families  turned  loose  on  Manhattan  Island,  caus 
ing  them  to  drift  into  the  Ghetto  of  our  metropolis  and 
other  congested  districts,  where  immorality  and  squalor 
march  hand  in  hand,  and  side  by  side.  The  Jew  has 
been  tainted  by  the  new  city  life  into  which  he  has  been 
cast. 

If  the  tribe  of  Baron  de  Hirsch  would  only  multiply 


NEW  YORK  345 

and  increase  as  the  tribes  of  Abou  Ben  Adam,  how  many 
of  these  poor  families  might  be  removed  from  poverty, 
hunger  and  dirt  to  peaceful  pastoral  sections  of  our  coun 
try,  there  till  the  soil  and  thrive  in  the  agricultural  pur 
suits  as  some  now  do  in  New  Jersey. 

Appreciating  the  need  of  having  good  Jewish  influence 
brought  to  bear  upon  the  minds  of  these  offenders  and  to 
better  them,  the  Society  for  the  Aid  of  Jewish  Prisoners 
was  ushered  into  existence  in  1891  to  take  up  the  work 
that  had  been  looked  after  by  the  Conference  of  New  York 
Rabbis.  Its  object  is  "  to  improve  the  moral  condition  of 
Jewish  prisoners  in  the  state  of  New  York,  and  to  lend 
them  a  helping  hand  after  their  release  from  penal  in 
stitutions.  ' ' 

Under  the  guidance  of  this  organization,  Rev.  Dr.  A.  M. 
Radin  holds  divine  services  at  the  Penitentiary  and  Work 
house,  Blackwell  's  Island,  on  every  Saturday ;  at  the  House 
of  Refuge,  Randall's  Island  every  Sunday;  at  the  Kings 
County  Penitentiary  in  Brooklyn  every  other  week  and 
at  the  Tombs  Prison  on  Mondays.  At  Sing  Sing  Dr. 
Israel  Davidson  makes  frequent  visits,  conducts  meetings, 
and  looks  after  the  Jewish  prisoners.  He  also  performs 
a  similar  task  at  the  state  penal  institution  at  Naponach. 
At  Auburn  Rev.  Dr.  A.  Guttman,  of  Syracuse,  is  the  Jew 
ish  chaplain,  and  at  Clinton  Prison  (Dannemora)  Rabbi 
Judelson  officiates. 

The  crimes  of  the  Russian  Jew  are  more  or  less  of  a 
nature  similar  to  those  of  other  nationalities  and  races, 
although  the  basest  of  crimes,  murder  and  manslaughter, 
are  practically  unknown  to  them. 

Some  years  ago  there  was  a  tendency  to  commit  arson, 
but  this  too  has  become  almost  entirely  eliminated  from 
the  category  of  offenses  among  the  immigrant  Israelites. 
Most  of  the  offenses  are  committed  by  the  children  of 
immigrants,  who  have  been  contaminated  by  the  vice  of  our 
great  city  and  who  spurn  the  advice  of  their  elders,  whom 
they  frequently  term  "  greenhorns  "  and  who  are  unable 
to  exert  the  necessary  influence  over  them  or  to  command 
the  proper  respect. 

Offenders  guilty  of  petty  larceny  and  other  misdemean 
ors  or  of  a  grand  larceny  in  a  minor  degree  are  generally 
committed  to  the  Blackwell 's  Island  Penitentiary  and  about 
eight  per  cent,  of  the  prisoners  at  that  institution  ar/> 
Jews.  This  includes  persons  arrested  for  selling  or  ped- 


346  LAW  AND  LITIGATION 

dling  on  the  streets  without  a  license,  who  are  unable  to 
pay  a  fine. 

Vagrants,  drunkards,  and  disorderly  characters  are  com 
mitted  to  the  Work  House  at  Blackwell's  Island,  and 
it  is  gratifying  to  learn  that  at  all  times  less  than  two 
per  cent,  of  the  two  thousand  inmates  of  that  institution 
are  of  the  Jewish  persuasion. 

At  the  Kings  County  Penitentiary  in  Brooklyn  there  are 
comparatively  few  males  and  it  is  indeed  a  rarity  to 
find  a  Jewish  girl  or  woman  on  the  roll. 

At  the  Tombs  Prison  and  Ludlow  Street  Jail,  where  per 
sons  under  indictment  are  detained,  pending  trial,  the  num 
ber  varies. 

About  ten  per  cent,  of  the  young  people  at  Elmira  Re 
formatory  are  Jewish,  but  this  includes  unfortunates  from 
all  over  the  state  of  New  York. 

At  Auburn  Prison  there  are  generally  less  than  a  dozen 
Jewish  convicts  sentenced  for  heinous  crimes  out  of  a  total 
of  more  than  thirteen  hundred. 

The  same  average  holds  good  for  Clinton  Prison;  and 
at  Sing  Sing  where  the  New  York  City  convicts,  who 
have  committed  felonies,  are  incarcerated,  the  average 
number  is  less  than  ten  per  cent,  among  the  Jews. 

' '  Evil  associations  corrupt  good  morals, ' '  is  applicable  to 
the  conditions  existing  in  the  so-called  Ghetto  of  New 
York  City.  During  the  regime  of  Tammany  Hall  the 
lower  East  Side  of  New  York  City  was  a  hot  bed  of  vice 
and  immorality  and  the  li  red  light  district,"  as  it  was 
termed,  became  as  offensive  a  glare  to  the  eye  as  the  Tam 
many  rule  was  a  stench  to  the  nostrils. 

Young  men  and  women  were  lured  away  from  their 
parental  roofs  and  employed  as  "  cadets  "  to  aid  as  bad 
a  gang  of  degenerates  as  ever  lived  in  a  civilized  com 
munity  and  the  then  chief  of  police  looked  on,  and  retired, 
or  rather  was  turned  out  of  office,  after  Tammany's  de 
feat  on  the  ill-gotten  gains  of  his  office. 

Young  working  girls  were  scoffed  at  by  those  who  wore 
silks  and  satins  and  had  money  in  their  pockets;  while  the 
former  wore  rags  and  had  barely  a  few  coins  that  they 
could  consider  their  own.  The  bad  influence  and  effects 
can  readily  be  imagined.  From  lives  of  immorality  de 
veloped  vagrancy,  petty  thefts,  and  more  serious  offenses. 
The  banal  influence  of  some  of  the  wretches  who  called 


NEW  YORK  347 

themselves  men  and  women,  not  only  on  girls  but  on  boys 
as  well,  can  be  pictured  without  much  difficulty. 

Another  trait  developed  by  this  state  of  affairs  was  gam 
bling  and  when  the  losses  in  gambling  became  extensive, 
the  temptation  to  forge  and  steal  developed  but  too  soon. 

How  could  such  influences  help  but  offset  the  virtuous 
instincts  of  a  parental  abode,  a  father's  advice,  or  a  moth 
er's  prayer? 

There  was  but  one  solution  when  the  reform  government 
entered  on  its  duties  under  the  leadership  of  Mayor  Low, 
whose  efforts  for  good  were  directly  turned  towards  ame 
liorating  the  conditions  of  these  depraved  and  downtrod 
den  Jews  and  Jewesses,  and  whose  noble  purposes  must 
be  thoroughly  appreciated, —  to  prosecute  all  offenders  and 
purify  the  congested  quarter  of  the  great  metropolis. 

Through  the  suggestions  of  this  administration  the 
youthful  criminals,  or  rather  offenders,  were  separated 
from  the  hardened  convicts,  as  will  appear  later. 

All  offenders  are  brought  before  a  magistrate's  court 
and  where  the  charge  is  one  of  disorderly  conduct,  vagran 
cy,  disturbing  the  peace,  etc.,  the  court  sentences  them  to 
Blackwell's  Island  for  a  few  days  or  sometimes  for  some 
months,  and  sometimes  simply  imposes  a  fine  and  if  it  is  not 
paid  the  culprit  is  sent  to  the  Workhouse  on  Blackwell's 
Island. 

In  instances  where  a  misdemeanor  is  committed,  such  as 
petty  larceny,  grand  larceny  in  a  minor  degree,  assault  in 
a  minor  degree,  and  the  like,  the  accused  is  held  under 
an  amount  of  bail  for  the  court  of  special  sessions,  pre 
sided  over  by  three  justices  at  a  session — and  without  a 
jury  —  whose  authority  extends  to  sentencing  offenders 
for  any  period  not  exceeding  one  year  and  in  imposing 
fines  not  in  excess  of  five  hundred  dollars.  Before  the  case 
reaches  the  court  of  special  sessions  an  indictment  must 
have  been  found  by  the  grand  jury. 

In  other  instances,  where  the  more  serious  and  heinous 
crimes  are  committed  the  city  magistrate  holds  the  pris 
oner,  with  or  without  bail,  as  the  exigencies  of  the  case 
may  require,  for  the  grand  jury,  and  in  some  cases  such 
matters  are  submitted  to  the  district  attorney  in  the  first 
instance,  and  he  may  take  the  initiative  in  submitting  the 
facts  to  the  grand  jury.  After  an  indictment  has  been 
found,  the  prisoner,  where  he  cannot  or  may  not  give  bail, 
is  confined  in  the  city  prison,  familiarly  called  the  Tombs, 


348  LAW  AND  LITIGATION 

until  his  case  is  reached  in  the  court  of  general  sessions 
of  the  peace,  or  occasionally  in  the  criminal  term  of  the 
supreme  court,  both  of  which  are  conducted  under  the 
jury  system. 

Upon  conviction  the  prisoner  may  be  sentenced  to  any 
of  the  state  prisons  and  fined,  or  in  case  of  minor  offenses, 
which  are  sometimes  disposed  of  in  the  last  named  court, 
to  the  penitentiary. 

In  Brooklyn  there  is  also  a  court  of  special  sessions,  and 
the  Kings  County  court  which  possesses  criminal  jurisdic 
tion  in  Brooklyn  takes  the  place  of  the  court  of  general 
sessions  in  New  York. 

Women  convicted  for  felonious  crimes  are  committed  to 
Auburn  or  to  Blackwell's  Island  or  to  some  reformatory, 
while  males  are  sent  to  any  one  of  the  penal  institutions 
herein  referred  to. 

During  the  past  two  years  a  number  of  excellent  in 
novations  have  become  established  tending  towards  pre 
serving  youth  under  sixteen  years  of  age  from  contamina 
tion  with  older  and  more  hardened  and  confirmed  crim 
inals. 

Wherever  a  boy  or  girl  of  tender  years  is  brought  before 
a  magistrate,  except  in  heavy  criminal  cases,  the  matter  is 
referred  to  one  of  the  justices  of  the  court  of  special 
sessions  who  presides  over  a  part  called  the  children's 
court  in  an  entirely  separate  building  away  from  the  en 
vironments  of  the  criminal  tribunals. 

The  courts  have  parole  officers  whose  duty  it  is  to  super 
vise  the  conduct  and  movements  of  the  youthful  offen 
ders,  on  whom  sentence  is  suspended.  These  parole  offi 
cers  report  to  the  court  from  time  to  time,  and  if  the 
reports  are  favorable  the  culprits  are  again  free  to  go 
where  they  please  and  are  thus  saved  from  the  evil  sur 
roundings  of  a  criminal  atmosphere  in  penal  institutions. 

This  parole  system  is  also  in  vogue  in  the  magistrate's 
court  and  frequently  sentence  is  suspended  pending  favor 
able  reports  submitted  to  the  court  by  parole  officers. 

Mrs.  Sophie  C.  Axman,  a  Jewess,  who  co-operated  with 
the  Educational  Alliance  and  looked  after  the  parole  cases 
in  the  children's  court,  has  now  been  appointed  chief 
parole  officer  by  the  board  of  justices  of  the  court  of  special 
sessions. 

In  all  of  the  penal  institutions,  religious  services  are 
held  for  the  Jewish  inmates  by  Jewish  rabbis,  with  the 


NEW  TOEK  349 

possible  exception  of  the  protectories.  At  the  Catholic  pro 
tectory  the  boys  are  taught  useful  trades  and  if  at  any  time 
a  Jewish  rabbi  desires  to  interview  Jewish  children  he  is 
generally  received  very  cordially. 

In  sending  children  or  young  men  to  a  reformatory  the 
judge  or  magistrate  selects  the  institution  which  is  conduct 
ed  in  conformity  with  the  religion  of  the  prisoner. 

Last  year  a  certificate  of  incorporation  was  granted  for 
a  Jewish  protectory  to  be  managed  on  the  lines  similar  to 
the  Catholic  protectory.  Several  meetings  of  the  incor- 
porators  of  the  new  Jewish  Protectory  and  Aid  Society 
have  been  held  in  New  York  City  and  more  than  two 
hundred  thousand  dollars  have  already  been  subscribed 
by  Jewish  members  of  this  great  municipality,  men  whose 
wealth  of  heart  is  commensurate  with  that  of  worldly 
goods,  and  it  is  to  be  expected  that  in  the  very  near  future 
ground  will  be  bought  and  buildings  erected  on  the  cot 
tage  system,  and  wayward  boys  and  girls  taught  trades 
of  all  kinds.  Under  the  state  laws  and  county  regulations 
the  society  will  receive  $2  per  week  or  $114  per  annum 
for  each  youth  cared  for,  but  it  is  estimated  that  it  will 
cost  again  as  much  to  maintain  the  inmates  and  the  re 
mainder  of  the  requisite  fund  will  be  raised  through  do 
nations  and  annual  dues.  Hon.  Julius  M.  Mayer,  who  was 
recently  elected  attorney  general  of  New  York  state,  is  the 
president  of  the  new  society.  Its  work  will,  beyond  doubt, 
be  far  reaching.  When  a  youthful  offender  receives  his  dis 
charge  from  the  protectory  he  will  be  proficient  in  the 
trade  which  he  has  learned  and  able  to  support  himself 
in  a  respectable  manner.  Through  the  co-operation  of  the 
societies  having  a  hand  in  the  work  of  the  Removal  Bureau 
he  may  be  sent  to  other  parts  of  the  country  to  work  at 
his  trade,  to  support  himself  and  others,  and  bequeath  to 
the  next  generation  a  fair  type  of  American  manhood. 

No  particular  mention  has  been  made  as  to  the  litigation 
in  the  criminal  courts  applicable  to  Jews  for  the  reason  that 
they  are  all  on  the  same  plane  with  others. 

In  cases  where  a  Jewish  prisoner  or  other  wishes  to 
stand  trial  and  has  no  attorney  the  court  will  always 
name  some  member  of  the  bar  to  defend  the  case,  and 
there  are  always  interpreters  to  assist,  although  there  are 
instances  of  miscarriage  of  justice  at  times. 

However,  we  may  be  fairly  well  satisfied  with  the  con 
ditions  during  the  past  year  in  New  York,  when  we  realize 


350  LAW  AND  LITIGATION 

how  vastly  different  the  empire  state  treats  its  Jewish 
offenders  compared  with  almost  every  European  nation, 
other  than  those  of  the  English-speaking  countries. 

After  a  Jewish  prisoner  is  discharged,  having  completed 
his  term  of  imprisonment,  Jewish  societies  give  him  a 
helping  hand,  and  in  some  instances  lead  him  back  into  the 
paths  of  virtue;  often,  too,  to  the  greatest  paradise  on 
earth,  a  happy  Jewish  home  circle. 


(B)  PHILADELPHIA 

What  is  the  relation  of  the  newly  arrived  Jew  of  East 
ern  Europe,  generally  termed  for  convenience,  the  Russian 
Jew,  to  American  law  ?  In  the  absence  of  statistical  infor 
mation  or  because  of  ignorance  of  his  peculiar  mental  and 
native  equipment,  erroneous  conclusions  might  be  arrived 
at.  The  conspicuous  presence  of  the  Russian  Jew  in  our 
courts  calls  occasionally  for  hasty,  often  prejudiced  opin 
ions,  which  the  light  of  the  real  facts  must  dispel.  If  the 
Russian  Jew  seems  to  appear  with  frequency  in  the  courts, 
the  tendency  of  the  observer,  however  calm  and  reserved, 
to  magnify  the  impression  of  a  novel  and  individual  spec 
tacle  must  not  be  forgotten.  In  the  general  melange  of 
all  kinds  of  persons  of  which  the  assemblage  at  the  courts 
is  made  up,  few  will  specially  attract  the  eye  save  those 
who  are  distinguished  by  some  peculiarities  of  appearance 
or  address  or  language.  Recent  immigrants  of  any  nation 
ality  almost  will  be  liable  to  the  distinction.  The  "  out- 
lander  ' '  is  very  easily  singled  out  from  the  throng  in  what 
ever  country  he  may  be.  But  in  our  courts  many  national 
ities,  such  as  English,  Irish  and  German,  for  obvious  rea 
sons,  will  attract  but  little  special  attention  because  of 
their  near  approximation  to  accepted  American  types. 
But  when  to  a  latent  prejudice  is  added  the  striking  in 
dividual  appearance  of  the  Russian  Jews,  it  will  be  seen 
that  the  impression  made  by  them,  standing  out  clearly  as 
they  do  in  the  eye  of  the  observer  from  the  rest  of  the 
crowd  of  litigants  and  suitors,  may  easily  be  exaggerated, 
and  a  rapid  judgment  will  come  to  the  sincere  but  perhaps 
erroneous  view  that  Russian  Jews  make  over  frequent  ap 
pearance  in  the  public  forums.  Under  such  circumstances 
4 '  one  swallow  may  make  a  whole  summer. ' '  This  caution 
is  here  expressed  because  the  writer  has  found  the  view  tc 
exist  upon  the  part  of  many  persons  that  the  Russian  Jew 
is  unduly  litigious. 

Something  needs  also  to  be  said  of  the  Russian  Jew's 
previous  life  and  circumstances.  His  status  under  the 

351 


352  LAW  AND  LITIGATION 

laws  of  his  native  land  is  uncertain.  The  only  certainty 
consists  in  the  restrictions  which  are  laid  about  him  and 
which  forbid  his  assertion  of  public  rights  of  the  common 
est  order.  He  is  not  equal  with  Russian  Christians  before 
the  Russian  law.  It  must  not  be  supposed  that  this  dulls 
his  desire  for  the  rights  that  are  withheld  and  makes  him 
indifferent  to  their  acquisition  or  importance;  on  the  con 
trary,  as  is  natural  with  any  people,  particularly  a  people 
of  strong  intellectual  and  moral  fibre,  the  desire  is 
merely  whetted  by  deprivation.  Again,  in  consequence  of 
this  civic  discrimination  and  by  force  of  Russia's  policy 
with  respect  to  him,  the  Jew  is  shut  out  of  the  current 
of  the  national  life,  such  as  there  is,  and  is  thrown 
back  upon  himself.  From  the  cares  of  every  day  exist 
ence,  his  religion  and  its  books  are  his  recreation,  nay,  even 
the  chief  aim  and  purpose  of  his  life,  and  discussion  of 
Jewish  law,  particularly  as  contained  in  the  Talmud,  be 
comes  the  intellectual  bread  upon  which  his  strong  men 
tality  is  nourished.  The  Jewish  law  will  rival  in  every 
respect  the  most  important  bodies  of  law  which  have  ap 
peared  among  men  in  history;  it  has  its  codes  and  codi 
fications,  digests  and  dicta,  precedents,  professors  and  stu 
dents,  great  underlying  principles,  refined  scholastic  dis 
tinctions,  quibbles  and  strength,  as  have  all  systems  of  law. 
It  differs  from  any  modern  system  in  that  it  makes  no 
distinction  between  civil  law  and  moral  law;  all  the 
"  civil  "  law  is  moral  law  and  all  the  "  moral  "  law  is 
civil  law,  a  thing  which  is  not  true  of  the  common  law  in 
force  in  England  and  many  parts  of  the  United  States, 
in  which  obligations  ex  foro  conscientice  are  not  necessar 
ily  enforceable  in  foro  legis.  There  is  a  whole  great  range 
of  human  relations,  rights,  and  obligations  into  which  the 
common  law  does  not  enter  and  with  which  it  does  not  con 
cern  itself,  but  the  Jewish  law  concerns  itself  with  all 
relations  between  men,  and  even  between  men  and  God, 
and  has  been  the  supreme  regulation  of  Jewish  life  for  long 
centuries.  An  aptitude  for  law,  an  appreciation  of  its 
value,  a  delight  in  its  intellectual  contests,  and  a  reverence 
for  its  decision  is  a  natural  inheritance  of  the  Jewish  peo 
ple.  The  repressions  of  Russian  policy  do  not  destroy 
this  abiding  faith  in  law;  and  the  freedom  of  America 
encourages  it.  So  much  for  a  few  points  of  general  ap 
plication. 

The  situation  of  the  Russian  Jew  in  Philadelphia  does 


PHILADELPHIA  353 

not  differ  materially  from  his  situation  in  other  cities  of 
similar  size  except  in  a  small  degree  caused  by  local  pe 
culiarities.  He  is  alert,  progressive,  and  thrifty.  He  en 
ters  quickly  into  business  and  by  hard  work  and  energetic 
application  has  made  a  place  for  himself  in  a  short  time. 
He  is  fairly  successful  in  the  small  shop  and  by  gradual 
stages  comes  to  have  the  large  manufacturing  establish 
ment,  and  his  signs  may  be  seen  in  all  the  important 
wholesale  streets  of  the  city.  He  is  a  handicraftsman  and 
an  employer  of  labor,  and  there  is  probably  no  branch 
of  trade  in  which  he  is  not  represented  in  some  way.  In 
the  mazes  of  business  and  investment  with  others,  intri 
cate  relations  result  naturally  in  a  proportionable  amount 
of  "  lawing  "  and  its  incidents.  He  is  a  quick  student 
and  has  early  learned  the  lesson  that  legal  advice  in  time 
is  a  preventive  of  law  suits;  conscious  of  certain  handi 
caps  of  speech  and  the  other  concomitants  of  a  foreign 
birth,  he  avails  himself  freely  of  the  training  and  skill 
of  the  lawyer. 

An  important  part  in  the  legal  life  of  the  Russian  Jew  is 
played  by  Russian  Jewish  notaries  public.  A  number  of 
Russian  Jews  hold  commissions  as  notaries  and  have  offices 
in  the  Russian  Jewish  district.  Their  contact  with  law 
gives  them  a  smattering  of  legal  knowledge  and  they  not 
only  authenticate  papers  notarially,  but  do  a  quasi-legal 
business,  drawing  with  more  or  less  skill  contracts  and 
papers,  engaging  in  real  estate  transactions,  insurance,  and 
the  like,  and  acting  as  semi-professional,  semi-friendly  ad 
visers  generally.  These  "  notary  public  shops,"  as  they 
have  been  aptly  termed,  are  the  necessary  local  requirement 
of  a  people  who  need  legal  services  and  who  turn  naturally 
to  those  they  know  best  for  such  assistance.  Usually  there 
is  a  qualified  attorney-at-law  who  either  maintains  a  branch 
office  with  the  notary  public  or  to  whom  the  latter  refers 
the  more  difficult  part  of  his  business. 

No  other  class  of  citizens  not  native  born  figures  as  large 
ly  in  the  civil  lists  of  the  courts,  because  no  other  class 
as  quickly  makes  its  way  in  the  industrial  world  and  enters 
so  keenly  into  its  life  and  intricacies.  But  as  compared 
with  the  whole  population,  and  keeping  in  view  the  Rus 
sian  Jew's  business  interests,  statistical  data  do  not  show 
any  undue  litigiousness.1  Of  a  total  of  1,330  cases  listed 

1  /t  is  estimated  thit  there  are  about  100,000   Jews  in  Philadelphia   (of  whom 
75,000  are  Russian   Jews),   out  of  a  total  population  of  1,300,000   for  the  city. 


354  LAW  AND  LITIGATION 

for  trial  in  a  trial  term  of  the  Philadelphia  courts  of  com 
mon  pleas,  Russian  Jews  were  plaintiffs  or  defendants  or 
both  in  112  cases,  a  percentage  of  8.42 ;  a  similar  list  of  770 
cases  of  another  period  showed  54  Russian  Jewish  cases,  a 
percentage  of  7.01.  The  percentage  of  Russian  Jewish  cases 
may  safely  be  placed  between  seven  and  eight,  a  result  veri 
fied  from  other  court  list  data.  This  is  close  to  the  Rus 
sian  Jew's  actual  percentage  of  population  and  would 
indicate  a  closer  identification  with  its  business  and  other 
interests  than  is  the  case  with  other  immigrant  peoples, 
whose  percentage  of  "  lawing  "  is  not  so  high  and  whose 
activities  are  correspondingly  not  so  great.  The  figures 
therefore  show  not  an  indication  of  obnoxious  assertive- 
ness,  but  a  plain  result  of  business  and  industrial  activity. 

In  the  magistrates'  or  justices'  courts  (having  a  civil 
jurisdiction  of  cases  where  not  more  than  one  hundred 
dollars  is  involved)  no  very  accurate  information  is  ob 
tainable,  owing  to  their  number  and  the  relative  inaccessi 
bility  of  their  records.  Certain  magistrates  in  sections 
of  the  city  near  to  the  Russian  Jewish  districts  have  a 
large  proportion  of  their  business  emanating  from  Jews. 
The  cases  are  vigorously  pressed  and  as  vigorously  fought, 
but  one  of  the  magistrates,  who  had  a  large  amount  of 
this  class  of  business,  informed  the  writer  that  there  is 
a  strong  tendency  to  arbitrate  cases,  and  this  is  a  well 
known  practice,  whether  before  or  after  a  case  is  begun 
in  court.  Some  rabbi,  a  well-known  banker,  or  business 
man,  a  notary  public,  is  selected  as  arbitrator  and  the  diffi 
culty  is  peaceably  adjusted.  The  rabbi  has  great  influence 
in  this  direction  and  it  would  seem  is  most  frequently  the 
arbitrator. 

A  reference  to  his  standing  in  the  world  of  real  estate, 
including  its  buying,  selling,  mortgaging  and  the  like, 
which  is  closely  allied  to  the  world  of  general  law,  will  show 
that  the  Russian  Jew  is  alive  to  the  merits  of  the  build 
ing  association  system,  and  to  the  merits  of  real  estate, 
whether  for  investment  or  personal  use.  A  considerable 
number  of  Russian  Jewish  real  estate  brokers,  agents 
and  dealers  of  good  standing,  whose  clientele  grows  rap 
idly  beyond  the  Russian  Jewish  circle,  attests  his  active 
participation  in  this  important  field.  The  daily  news 
paper  lists  of  real  estate  transactions  show  an  increasing 
number  of  Jewish  names ;  and  the  Russian  Jew  is  well  repre 
sented  at  the  sales  at  leading  real  estate  exchanges. 


PHILADELPHIA  355 

That  he  is  provident  is  markedly  shown  in  these  real 
estate  dealings.  He  buys  real  estate  with  the  idea  of 
saving  his  money ;  he  buys  when  he  has  but  a  small  amount 
of  money  to  invest,  leaving  the  rest  upon  easy  payment 
mortgage,  which  he  slowly  and  surely  pays  off,  though  his 
earnings  be  but  small;  he  buys  not  expecting  or  antici 
pating  to  be  foreclosed,  but  intending  to  save  and 
eventually  to  acquire  clear  a  home,  a  shop,  or  an  invest 
ment,  and  the  mortgage  acts  as  a  spur  instead  of  a  weight. 
Hence  he  is  considered  a  good  "  moral  risk  "  in  the  mat 
ter  of  mortgage  loans.  He  is  besides  steadily  advancing 
into  the  field  of  the  larger  real  estate  and  building  opera 
tions. 

The  field  of  criminal  law  presents  some  interesting 
features.  There  is  a  considerable  amount  of  this  class 
of  litigation.  There  was  a  time  when  the  presence  of  a 
Jew  in  the  criminal  court  was  of  exceeding  rarity;  it  is 
not  so  now.  Yet  this  important  fact  must  be  remembered ; 
as  noted  above,  when  the  Russian  Jew  does  appear  his 
striking  individuality  will  stand  out  in  such  strong  relief 
as  to  leave  a  lasting  impression  and  draw  many  to  the 
conclusion  that  the  Jew  is  occupying  a  considerable  part 
of  the  time  of  the  criminal  court.  The  writer  has  heard 
court  officers  speak  in  this  way;  they  forget  the  thousands 
of  cases  in  which  men  of  no  special  peculiarity  appeared 
in  court  but  remember  with  great  vividness  the  Jews  who 
pass  before  them.  This  is  understandable,  but  quite 
wrong.  An  illustration  of  how  this  alien  appearance  works 
against  the  Jew  may  not  be  out  of  place.  If  a  Jew  in 
business  difficulty  should  confess  judgment  to  those  whom 
he  wishes  to  prefer  among  his  creditors,  the  fact  would 
be  remembered,  while  if  it  were  done  by  a  non-Jew,  no  one 
would  remember  it  as  a  tendency  of  the  particular  class. 
Recently  a  large  corporation  with  public  purposes  confessed 
judgment  in  favor  of  certain  creditors  who  were  also  its 
managers  and  officers;  by  this  process  a  large  number  of 
claims  against  the  company  were  effectually  rendered 
worthless.  The  matter  attracted  passing  attention  but  it 
will  certainly  not  be  stigmatized  as  a  characteristic  of  the 
people  who  effected  this  highly  inequitable  result.  Yet 
the  incident  was  as  flagrant  as  any  that  could  be  cited. 

An  examination  of  the  kind  of  crimes  prevalent  among 
Jews  reveals  no  cause  for  serious  alarm.  The  majority 
are  assault  and  battery  cases  of  a  trivial  description  and 


356  LAW  AND  LITIGATION 

they  arise  quite  naturally.  The  living  together  in  large 
numbers,  several  families  in  a  house,  the  keen  business 
rivalry,  bring,  with  a  people  of  the  excitable,  nervous  tem 
perament  of  the  Jew,  frequent  occasions  when  high  words 
pass  and  —  infrequently  —  a  blow  is  struck ;  —  infre 
quently  because  in  many  cases  the  whole  trouble  is  mere 
hot  language  and  threatening  gestures.  As  the  slightest 
touching  in  anger  is  in  technical  law  a  battery,  ample  ma 
terial  for  a  prosecution  on  the  part  of  an  angry  man  or 
woman  is  provided.  Not  unusually  the  other  party, 
spurred  on  by  the  institution  of  legal  proceeding  and  as 
a  measure  of  protection  by  way  of  counter  offense,  insti 
tutes  a  cross-charge,  and  it  is  found  that  a  large  proportion 
of  these  Russian  Jewish  assault  and  battery  cases  consists 
of  counter  bills.  The  result  is  generally  that  by  the  time 
the  matter  comes  to  court,  both  parties,  now  in  cooler 
blood,  are  heartily  sick  of  the  whole  matter,  a  better  feel 
ing  ensues,  and  both  cases  are  submitted  by  agreement  and 
dropped.  When  they  proceed  so  far  as  a  trial,  it  gen 
erally  results  in  the  jury  acquitting  both  sides,  being 
unable  to  determine  from  the  conflicting  evidence  who  is 
guilty;  the  presumption  of  innocence  until  guilt  is  proven 
controls  and  there  is  a  happy  ending  for  the  contestants. 
But  not  infrequently  the  mediation  of  some  cool-headed 
friend,  who  makes  an  appeal  to  their  good  "  Jewish  f eel- 
ing,  "  produces  the  desired  result  of  peace. 

These  conclusions  are  not  merely  the  result  of  collated 
opinions  of  those  informed  on  the  subject,  but  are  verified 
by  statistical  data.  The  result  of  one  hundred  and  sixty 
assault  and  battery  cases  against  Jewish  defendants 
tried  in  the  Philadelphia  courts  in  one  year  was  but 
twenty-nine  convictions  and  one  hundred  and  thirty-one 
acquittals. 

Other  crimes  committed  by  Jews  are  quite  below  the 
proportion  in  the  whole  community.  Some  of  them  grow 
out  of  the  Jew's  prominence  in  business.  Cases  of  lar 
ceny  by  bailee  arise,  as  where  in  a  dispute  over  the  amount 
due  by  a  manufacturer  of  clothing  to  a  finisher,  the  finisher 
retains  the  articles  until  he  is  paid,  and  the  manufacturer 
causes  his  arrest.  These  are  really  civil  disputes,  which, 
however,  may  be  brought  technically  within  a  criminal 
statute;  they  are  generally  settled  amicably.  Isolated 
cases  of  embezzlement,  forgery,  larceny,  malicious  mischief, 
conspiracy,  receiving  stolen  goods  and  the  like,  sometimes 


PHILADELPHIA  357 

technically,  sometimes  substantially  true,  occur,  but  they 
are  not  unduly  frequent. 

Before  the  institution  of  the  juvenile  court,  a  consid 
erable  number  of  larceny  cases  appeared  against  Jews;  so 
also  a  fair  number  of  malicious  mischief  cases.  Many  of 
these  were  cases  of  petty  depredations  by  boys  which  would 
now  be  met  by  the  more  adequate  remedies  of  the  juvenile 
court.  It  is  true  that  the  once  unsullied  name  of  the  Jew 
is  not  now  unspotted,  but  the  fault  is  not  so  much  with 
the  Jew  as  with  those  trying  conditions,  for  which  he  is 
not  responsible,  under  which  these  deplorable  results  have 
appeared.  The  tyranny  practiced  against  him  in  his  old 
home  and  the  utterly  different  conditions  of  American  life 
to  which  he  is  suddenly  transported,  conditions  of  bad 
housing  and  the  like,  and  the  demands  of  a  business  world 
whose  prevailing  standards  are  not  always  of  the  highest, 
demanding  tense  vigilance  and  strenuous  zeal,  contribute 
to  the  cause. 

Data  of  tried  cases  in  a  year  show  the  following  results : 
Twenty  cases  of  obtaining  money  or  a  valuable  thing  by 
cheating  or  misrepresentation  showed  four  convictions  and 
sixteen  acquittals;  four  cases  of  receiving  stolen  goods  re 
sulted  in  one  conviction  and  three  acquittals;  five  cases  of 
perjury  resulted  in  no  convictions  and  five  acquittals;  of 
arson  not  a  single  case  was  found  during  the  year  in  ques 
tion;  homicide  is  almost  unknown. 

If  the  keeping  of  bawdy  houses  and  prostitution,  once 
practically  unknown  among  Jews,  have  made  their  ap 
pearance  in  Philadelphia  as  in  other  American  cities,  it 
is  to  be  remembered  that  the  former  freedom  of  the  Jews 
from  these  evils  rather  over-emphasizes  their  spread. 

Some  curious  violations  of  the  criminal  law  and  the 
laws  of  marriage  occur  through  reliance  upon  the  pro 
visions  of  the  Jewish  law,  in  ignorance  of  the  law  of  the 
state.  The  gett  (  divorce  )  duly  granted  according  to  the 
Jewish  law,  is  of  course  of  no  avail  in  the  courts  here, 
though  it  is  in  Russia. 

Similarly  cases  of  marriage  within  consanguineous  de 
grees  forbidden  by  the  state  law  but  allowed  by  the  Jew 
ish  law  and  innocently  contracted,  have  arisen.  No  dis 
position  of  the  authorities  to  punish  innocent  defendants 
in  such  cases  appears.  The  rabbis  have  taken  some  steps 
to  prevent  this  conflict  of  laws,  one  suggestion  being  a 


358  LAW  AND  LITIGATION 

refusal  to  grant  the  Jewish  divorce  until  the  civil  divorce 
has  been  obtained. 

The  following  data  of  the  inmates  of  prisons  and  reform 
institutions  in  Philadelphia  are  of  interest : 

In  the  Eastern  Penitentiary  (prisoners  committing  the 
graver  crimes  in  the  eastern  part  of  Pennsylvania  are  sent 
to  this  prison)  there  were  on  November  17,  1904,  in  all 
1,121  prisoners,  of  whom  20  were  Jews,  a  percentage  of 
1.78,  which  is  very  small  as  compared  with  the  percentage 
of  population,  which  is  7.7  per  cent.  Of  these,  11  or  not 
quite  one  per  cent,  of  the  whole  number  of  prisoners,  were 
Jews  of  Eastern  Europe,  Russia,  Austria,  etc. ;  7  were 
Jews  born  in  the  United  States,  one  in  England,  and  one 
in  Scotland.  The  nativity  of  the  parentage  of  these  has 
not  been  ascertained.  The  following  were  the  crimes  com 
mitted  by  the  Eastern  European  Jews  :  Murder  I,1  lar 
ceny  and  receiving  1,  larceny  and  entering  2,  burglary, 
larceny  and  horse  stealing  1,  false  pretenses  1,  forgery  1, 
counterfeiting  1,  assault  and  battery  with  intent  to  rape  1, 
distilling  whisky  without  giving  bond  1,  breaking  and 
entering  1. 

In  the  Philadelphia  county  prison  the  total  number  of 
convicts  (December  12,  1904)  was  509,  of  whom  18,  or 
3.54  per  cent.,  were  Jews.  Of  these,  12,  or  2.36  per  cent., 
of  the  total  number  of  prisoners,  were  born  in  Russia,  3  in 
the  United  States,  2  in  Germany  and  1  in  England.  The 
following  were  the  charges:  Larceny  6,  aggravated  as- 
saujt  and  battery  2,  forgery  3,  receiving  stolen  goods  3, 
robbery  2,  burglary  1,  involuntary  manslaughter  1. 

Grouping  these  data  it  is  found  that  Jews  are  inmates 
of  the  .prisons  for  serious  crimes  to  the  extent  of  2.66  per 
cent.,  while  the  Jew's  percentage  of  the  population  is  7.7 
per  cent.,  or  nearly  three  times  as  great. 

Juvenile  delinquency  among  Russian  Jews  has  perhaps 
aroused  the  most  discussion.  The  causes  of  this  are  again 
largely  economic;  housing  conditions  are  bad;  the  parents 
are  hard-working  and  too  busy  with  earning  the  liveli 
hood  to  pay  sufficient  attention  to  their  children,  who,  left 
to  themselves,  learn  idle  or  vicious  habits  on  the  streets 
and  in  the  thousand  ways  of  imitative  childhood.  Besides 
many  children  very  early  help  in  the  family  support  and 
as  newsboys  in  large  numbers  on  the  streets  and  in  the 

1  As  noted  above,  it  is  an  isolated  case. 


PHILADELPHIA  359 

lower  classes  of  employment  are  deprived  of  the  oppor 
tunity  of  refining  influences.  In  addition,  the  child,  quick 
ly  Americanized,  speedily  finds  a  gulf  between  itself  and 
its  parents  in  respect  of  religious  and  other  sentiments,  and 
the  parental  authority  grows  less  and  less  of  a  restraint. 
The  juvenile  court,  with  its  system  of  probation  officers, 
and  Jewish  agencies  and  the  settlements  and  other  kindred 
institutions,  is  working  acceptably  with  this  condition. 

In  the  House  of  Refuge  for  boys  at  Glen  Mills,  Pa. 
(which  is  a  high  grade  corrective  institution  and  not  a 
prison),  out  of  a  total  of  766  inmates,  61,  or  7.96  per  cent., 
were  Jews,  almost  all  of  whom  were  Eastern  European. 
Of  these,  twenty-seven  were  charged  with  larceny,  twenty- 
four  with  incorrigibility  and  the  others  with  various  de 
linquencies,  such  as  running  away  from  home,  fighting, 
keeping  bad  company,  malicious  mischief,  and  the  like. 

In  the  Girls'  House  of  Eefuge,  out  of  a  total  of  127  in 
mates,  8,  or  3.81  were  Jewish,  all  charged  with  being 
incorrigible. 

There  is  no  specifically  Jewish  institution  to  receive  de 
linquent  children,  but  Jewish  organizations  are  providing 
private  places  for  their  care.  There  is  no  doubt  that  the 
previous  rarity  of  delinquency  of  this  kind  among  Jews 
accentuates  the  dismay  felt  at  its  recent  manifestation. 
As  economic  conditions  better  for  the  Jew,  however, 
and  as  some  of  the  agencies  now  at  work  grow  in 
influence  and  assist  where  the  parents  are  unable  to  in 
fluence,  the  matter  will  be  adjusted. 

The  Russian  Jew  on  the  whole  appears  in  a  favorable 
light  from  the  standpoint  of  the  law.  Such  criticisms  as 
may  be  made  are  apt  to  be  exaggerated,  and  where  just 
should  rather  be  made  against  conditions  for  which  he  is 
not  responsible  and  of  which  he  is  the  victim.  He  has  not 
lost  his  character  as,  and  is  pre-eminently,  a  law-abiding 
citizen,  earnestly  interested  in  the  welfare  of  the  state,  and 
no  less  keenly  alive  to  his  civic  responsibilities  than  to  his 
civic  privileges. 


(C)  CHICAGO 

I  shall  first  review  the  litigation  most  common  amongst 
Russian  Jews  in  the  civil  branch  of  the  courts.  They  are : 
Suits  growing  out  of  contracts  of  bargain  and  sale  of  mer 
chandise,  personal  injuries,  matters  relating  to  personal 
property,  marriage  and  divorce,  real  property,  bankruptcy. 

A  little  more  than  half  of  the  Jewish  population  in  the 
city  of  Chicago  are  engaged  in  the  mercantile  business 
and  hence  disputes  often  arise  as  to  the  quality  of  the 
goods,  manner  and  time  of  delivery  and  similar  matters. 
Suits  are  also  frequently  brought  for  goods  sold  and  de 
livered.  In  most  of  the  cases,  there  is  generally  a  good 
and  bona  fide  defense.  Cases  of  this  kind  seldom  go  by 
default,  unless  the  defendant  be  a  bankrupt,  or  contem 
plates  bankruptcy.  The  courts,  however,  are  not  much 
bothered  with  litigation  of  this  class.  A  great  many  of 
the  cases  are  tried  and  disposed  of  by  arbitration,  or  are 
submitted  to  the  orthodox  Jewish  rabbis  for  decision.  In 
this  connection,  it  is  worth  while  mentioning  that  the  ortho 
dox  Jewish  rabbis  of  this  city  have  organized  a  tribunal 
with  all  the  formalities  and  forms  prescribed  by  the  Tal- 
mudic  law,  which  has  proven  a  blessing  to  the  Jewish 
community  in  keeping  the  people  out  of  courts.  Matters 
are  disposed  of  with  great  dispatch  and  all  parties  inter 
ested  seem  to  be  always  satisfied. 

Personal  Injuries.  Since  so  large  a  portion  of  the  Jew 
ish  population  is  engaged  in  industrial  pursuits,  working 
in  factories  of  every  description,  which  are  operated  by 
dangerous  machinery,  many  become  injured  in  the  usual 
course  of  such  employments.  The  number  of  injured  Rus 
sian  Jews  is  augmented  by  the  terrible  condition  of  the 
street  car  system  of  the  city  of  Chicago.  It  is  a  note 
worthy  fact  that  during  working  hours  it  requires  a  great 
effort  for  a  workingman  to  reach  home.  Conductors  do 
not  stop  at  the  crossings,  the  cars  are  always  overcrowded ; 
people  become  maimed  in  their  efforts  to  either  get  on  or 
off  the  cars.  As  a  consequence  considerable  litigation  is 

360 


CHICAGO  361 

pending  in  our  courts  in  behalf  of  Russian  Jews,  growing 
out  of  personal  injury  sustained  by  them,  either  during 
their  employment  or  while  going  or  coming  from  work. 
There  are  very  few  suits  of  this  kind  pending  against 
them  as  defendants. 

Marriage  and  Divorce.  There  is  considerable  litigation 
in  the  courts  growing  out  of  the  relation  of  husband  and 
wife.  Hasty  marriages  and  marriages  on  the  part  of  girls 
for  the  sake  of  quitting  work  in  the  sweat-shops  or  other 
undesirable  factory  places,  without  regard  to  the  fitness 
and  temperament  of  contracting  parties,  are  in  a  great 
measure  responsible  for  this  condition,  but  with  all  this, 
it  cannot  be  said  that  there  is  a  greater  percentage  of  di 
vorce  cases  than  among  other  nationalities  in  Chicago. 

Real  Estate.  To  judge  of  the  progress  that  Russian 
Jews  have  made  in  this  city,  we  must  take  into  considera 
tion  the  large  extent  of  real  estate  acquired  by  them  within 
the  last  fifteen  years.  It  may  be  said  with  a  certainty  that 
65  per  cent,  of  all  the  real  property  in  the  so-called  Ghetto 
district,  comprising  the  portions  of  the  Ninth,  Tenth, 
Eleventh,  Eighteenth,  Nineteenth  and  Twentieth  Wards 
occupied  by  Russian  Jews,  is  owned  by  them.  This  is  ex 
clusive  of  real  estate  owned  by  Russian  Jews  in  other  parts 
of  the  city  of  Chicago  and  county  of  Cook.  It  is  natural 
that  men  owning  real  estate  should  have  disputes  with 
tenants  and  hence  litigation  growing  out  of  the  relation 
ship  of  landlord  and  tenant,  but  during  all  my  experience 
as  a  practicing  attorney  among  Russian  Jews  I  did  not  find 
one  case  of  a  heartless  landlord  in  the  true  sense  of  the 
word,  but  in  most  instances  there  were  circumstances,  some 
in  favor  of  the  plaintiff  and  others  in  that  of  the  defend 
ant,  which  at  least  justify  litigation  in  court.  The 
proportion  of  suits  of  this  kind  is  considerably  less  among 
Russian  Jews  than  among  other  classes  of  citizens  in  the 
city  of  Chicago. 

Bankruptcy.  The  Russian  Jew  arriving  in  this  country 
without  capital  usually  establishes  his  business  with  a  small 
capital,  saved  up  as  result  of  hard  work.  A. recent  immi 
grant,  he  is  not  in  a  condition  to  enable  him  to  scrutinize 
business  transactions  without  blunder.  He  is  not  yet  up 
to  the  nice  business  tricks  practiced  by  the  Boards  of  Trade 
and  the  great  financiers  and  business  men  of  America, 
who  are  so  proficient  in  organizing  trusts  and  corporations. 
Therefore  he  frequently  mistakes  the  course  of  action  nee- 


362  LAW  AND  LITIGATION 

essary  in  his  business  ventures  and  as  a  consequence  is 
sometimes  led  into  bankruptcy.  Russian  Jews  were  there 
fore  obliged  to  avail  themselves  of  the  benefit  of  the  bank 
ruptcy  law.  An  investigation  of  the  clerk's  office  of  the 
district  court  of  the  United  States  in  Chicago  discloses  the 
fact  that  every  Russian  Jew  who  filed  a  petition  in  bank 
ruptcy  was  granted  a  discharge  by  the  courts,  thus  show 
ing  a  presumptive  absence  of  fraud  in  business  transac 
tions. 

Crimes.  There  were  a  number  of  cases  tried  in  the  po 
lice  courts  against  Russian  Jews,  in  which  men  were 
charged  with  abandonment  of  wife  and  children,  but  in 
most  cases  the  magistrates  effected  a  reconciliation  and  the 
charge  was  dropped.  I  could  find  no  record  in  the  criminal 
court  of  any  case  against  a  Russian  Jew  charged  with  ab 
duction  of  an  unmarried  female.  No  indictments  were 
found  in  the  year  1904  against  a  Russian  Jew  or  Jewess 
on  the  statutory  crime  of  abortion.  No  convictions  were 
had  in  the  criminal  court  on  the  charge  of  adultery. 

The  oft-repeated  charge  of  arson  against  the  Jews  finds 
no  substantiation  in  the  annals  of  the  criminal  court  of 
Cook  County.  During  the  year  1904  not  a  single  Jew  was 
indicted  by  the  grand  jury  on  a  charge  of  arson.  The  po 
lice  courts  in  the  Ghetto  districts  are  often  called  upon  to 
try  cases  of  assault  and  battery,  but  in  a  majority  of  in 
stances  there  is  no  prosecution  when  these  cases  are  called 
for  trial.  There  were  three  convictions  of  Russian  Jews 
in  the  criminal  court,  during  the  years  of  1903  and  1904  on 
the  charge  of  bigamy;  they  were  brought  about  by  the 
energetic  action  of  the  United  Hebrew  Charities.  There 
were  no  indictments  against  Russian  Jews  on  the  charge 
of  bribery  within  the  last  fifteen  years.  There  were  three 
cases  of  burglary  against  Russian  Jews  during  the  year 
1904,  resulting  in  two  convictions. 

Four  Russian  Jews  were  convicted  during  the  years  1903 
and  1904  for  conspiracy  to  commit  an  illegal  act.  Cases  of 
embezzlement  and  extortion  by  threats  were  quite  rare; 
while  there  might  have  been  cases  of  this  kind  in  the  police 
courts  very  few  of  them  ever  reached  the  criminal  court. 
There  were  a  number  of  cases  in  the  criminal  court  against 
Russian  Jews  on  the  charge  of  obtaining  goods  under  false 
pretenses,  but  in  most  instances  there  were  acquittals. 
There  were  no  convictions  of  any  Russian  Jew  on  the 
charge  of  forgery  in  the  criminal  court  within  the  last  three 


CHICAGO  363 

years.  Ten  Russian  Jews  were  convicted  for  bucket-shop 
ping.  Two  Russian  Jews  were  tried  and  convicted  in  1904 
for  manslaughter.  In  both  cases,  insanity  was  the  defense. 
During  the  entire  history  of  the  criminal  court  of  Chicago 
there  was  not  a  single  case  of  a  Russian  Jew  on  the  charge 
of  incest  or  kidnapping.  About  twenty  Russian  Jews, 
mostly  junk  dealers,  pawn-brokers,  and  second-hand  deal 
ers,  were  indicted  during  the  year  1904  for  receiving  stolen 
property.  One  of  the  convicted  men  was  sentenced  to  the 
penitentiary  and  the  others  received  jail  sentences  and  were 
fined.  There  were  no  convictions  on  charges  of  malicious 
mischief  and  mayhem,  and  no  indictments  for  perjury 
were  returned  during  the  year  1904.  Not  a  single  Russian 
Jew  was  convicted  on  the  charge  of  vagrancy. 

Violations  of  City  Ordinances.  It  is  a  fundamental 
principle  of  law  that  everybody  is  supposed  to  know  the 
law  and  that  ignorance  of  the  law  is  no  excuse.  The  word 
1 '  law  ' '  includes  the  common  law,  constitutional  law,  statu 
tory  and  municipal  ordinances. 

It  is  monstrous  to  suppose  that  a  Russian  Jew,  a  recent 
immigrant,  should  know  all  these  laws,  much  less  the  mu 
nicipal  ordinances  which  are  passed  at  one  session  of  the  city 
council  and  repealed  at  another.  (In  this  connection,  I 
call  attention  to  the  legal  absurdity,  that  while  everybody 
is  supposed  to  know  of  the  existence  of  municipal  ordi 
nances,  the  judge  who  tries  the  case  is  not  supposed  to 
know  that  such  an  ordinance  in  fact  exists.  He  takes  no 
judicial  notice  of  a  municipal  ordinance  unless  it  has  been 
exhibited  to  him  in  proper  form  and  proved  up  in  accord 
ance  with  all  the  rules  of  evidence.) 

It  is  therefore  natural  that  there  should  be  violations 
of  municipal  ordinances,  because  of  the  ignorance  of  the 
people  of  the  existence  of  such  ordinances,  and  not  neces 
sarily  because  of  a  desire  to  violate  them.  Russian  Jews 
are  frequently  the  victims  of  police  officers,  who  delight  in 
arresting  for  a  violation  of  a  city  ordinance  with  prospect 
of  the  harvest  of  the  ward  politicians  and  professional 
bailers,  who  are  always  on  hand  to  help  out  a  "  friend. " 

The  information  furnished  above  is  based  upon  personal 
investigation  and  knowledge  of  the  writer  with  litigation 
among  Russian  Jews  during  a  law  practice,  in  the  city  of 
Chicago,  for  the  past  twelve  years. 


111! 


JEWISH    TRAINING    SCHOOL,    CHICAGO,    ILL. 


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XI 
DISTRIBUTION 


J 


DISTRIBUTION 

A  consideration  of  the  status  of  any  people  would  be 

incomplete  without  determining  the  effect  of  their  geo 
graphical  situation.  This  is  particularly  applicable  to  the 
Jews,  because  of  their  remarkable  adaptability  to  environ 
ment.  The  Jew  in  America  is  still  a  stranger  in  a  strange 
land.  True,  there  are  a  few  who  can  boast  of  two  or  three 
generations  in  this  country,  but  they  are  largely  in  the 
minority. 

There  is  only  one  noteworthy  tendency  that  can  be  ob 
served  in  the  distribution  of  the  Jews  in  this  country  that 
is  different  from  the  tendencies  in  other  large  classes  of 
immigrants.  Scandinavian  immigrants,  for  instance,  are 
largely  found  in  one  section  of  the  country,  in  the  wheat- 
fields  of  the  Northwest.  Italians  are  where  there  is  need 
for  laborers  in  gangs  or  for  what  might  be  termed  itinerant 
labor.  The  Slavs  from  Russia  and  Austria  are  in  the  min 
ing  districts.  These  three  large  classes  of  immigrants  move 
along  simple,  well-defined  lines.  The  distribution  of  the 
Jews,  though  not  so  well  defined  on  the  surface,  is  due  to 
tendencies  that  are  peculiar  to  himself.  Having  been  a 
city-dw-eller  for  centuries,  the  love  for  city  life  is  strong 
withia  him.  We  cannot  therefore  expect  to  find  him  on 
the  prairies  of  the  "West,  in  the  coal  mines  of  -the  East  or 
the  plantations  of  the  South.  We  see  him  iii  the  larger 
cities  of  the  country,  New  York,  Philadelphia,  'Chicago,  St. 
^ouis,  Cincinnati,  San  Francisco  and  others  nearly  as 
arge;  and  wherever  he  is  found  in  the  smaller  towns  and 
villages,  the  original  settlement,  we  can  rest  assured,  was 
made  by  those  whose  headquarters  had  first  been  a  large 
city  in  the  vicinity. 

This  being  practically  the  only  phenomenon  to  be  ob 
served  in  the  distribution  of  the  Jew  in  America,  how 
meagre  was  our  knowledge  of  the  situation,  and  how  un 
satisfactory  and  discouraging  to  those  who  realized  that 
the  peculiar  conditions  attendant  upon  the  large  influx  of 
Jews  and  their  consequent  congestion  in  the  sea-port  towns 

366 


DISTRIBUTION  367 

made  it  necessary  that  they  be  distributed.  Either  the 
courage  of  those  who  undertook  the  enterprise  must  be 
commended  or  the  pressing  need  deplored,  or,  perhaps, 
both.  Artificial  distribution  was  begun  four  years  ago  and 
the  movement,  self-styled  "  Industrial  Removal,"  has  be 
come  known  in  every  city  and  town  in  the  country  where 
Jews  are  to  be  found.  Whether  this  stimulated  distribu 
tion  will  show  results  markedly  different  from  those  con 
sequent  upon  a  more  natural  distribution  cannot,  of  course, 
be  accurately  determined  for  some  time.  Be  that  as  it 
may,  however,  the  movement  itself  is  most  interesting  and 
the  results  thus  far  obtained  will  be  instructive  in  throw 
ing  some  little  light  upon  the  question  as  a  whole. 

In  consequence  of  the  many  restrictive  laws  of  Roumania, 
there  began  in  the  year  1900  a  large  influx  of  Roumanian 
Jews  into  this  country.  The  normal  Jewish  immigration 
then  averaged  about  45,000  annually,  the  majority  of  whom 
remain^Jba-JJew  York,  which  city  already  at  that  time 
contained  over  500^)00.  This  large  immigration  has  been 
going  on  since  1881 ;  over  70  per  cent,  of  those  who  arrived 
in  the  Umtedr^fa'tes  remained  in  New  York.  One  of  the 
results  of  this  movement  was  the  gradual  congestion  of  the 
immigrant  population  in  one  part  of  the  city,  called  the 
East  Side.  So  much  has  been  published  of  the  conditions 
prevailing  in  the  so-called  New  York  Ghetto  that  it  is  not 
necessary  here  to  dwell  upon  them. 

Those  who  were  actively  interested  in  the  question  of 
Jewish  immigration  realized  that,  though  the  conditions 
in  Roumania  demanded  the  continuance  of  this  immigra 
tion,  it  was  essential  to  divert  the  stream  away  from  New 
York.  They  understood,  too,  that  the  problem  of  Jewish 
immigration  to  the  United  States  was  not  local  merely  be 
cause  the  vast  majority  of  ocean  steamships  disembarked 
their  human  cargoes  in  the  harbor  of  New  York.  They 
argued  that  these  people  do  not  come  to  New  York;  they 
come  to  America,  and  so  the  question  of  immigration  is  \/ 
of  national  interest;  that  is  to  say,  it  was  incumbent  on  * 
Jews  all  over  the  country  to  help  bear  the  burden  of  car 
ing  for  these  friendless  refugees  and  making  them  self- 
supporting.  The  plan  to  be  pursued,  therefore,  must  be 
one  by  which  the  immigrants  were  to  be  distributed  all 
over  the  country,  in  towns  where  economic  and  industrial 
conditions  are  better  than  in  the  metropolis. 

The  question  that  arose  in  the  minds  of  these  men  was 


368  DISTRIBUTION 

how  to  arouse  the  Jewish  communities  to  a  sense  of  their 
duty  in  accepting  as  many  as  they  had  reasonable  assurance 
of  placing  in  self-supporting  positions.  What  agency 
/could  be  employed  that  would  effectively  reach  these  com- 
/  munities  ?  The  answer  to  this  query  was  the  Independent 
y  Order  B^naiJB^itfi.  It  was  peculiarly  fitted  to  undertake 
the  stupendous  task  of  distributing  these  immigrants  upon 
their  arrival  by  virtue  of  its  character  as  a  strong  and  com 
prehensive  organization,  represented  in  most  important 
towns  and  cities  in  the  Union.  The  Executive  Committee 
of  the  B'nai  B'rith  issued  bulletins  to  the  various  lodges 
in  the  West  and  South,  explaining  the  situation,  earnestly 
requesting  them  to  organize  in  such  a  way  as  to  make  it 
possible  to  effect  the  purpose  in  view.  As  a  result  of  the 
encouraging  assurance  of  co-operation  on  the  part  of  these 
lodges,  a  committee  was  organized  in  New  York  for  the 
purpose  of  handling  the  situation  in  systematic  fashion. 
This  committee  established  a  local  office,  whose  business  it 
became  to  open  communication  with  the  lodges  which  had 
responded,  and  to  prosecute  the  work  of  distribution  prac 
tically. 

In  a  short  time  it  was  discovered  that  there  were  many 
difficulties  in  the  way  of  conducting  this  work  successfully, 
by  no  means  the  least  of  which  was  the  necessity  of  over 
coming  the  unwillingness  of  the  newly-arrived  Roumanians 
to  leave  New  York  after  they  had  found  friends  and  rela 
tives  there.  Owing  to  this  difficulty,  and  also  to  the  fact 
that  there  were  many  Jews  in  New  York  from  other  coun 
tries  who  were  also  out  of  work,  the  subject  acquired  a 
new  aspect.  The  conviction  forced  itself  upon  the  minds 
of  the  committee  that  in  order  not  to  augment  the  conges 
tion  in  New  York,  particularly  in  view  of  the  fact  that  in 
addition  to  the  Roumanians,  there  were  thousands  of  Rus 
sians  and  Galicians  constantly  coming,  it  was  necessary 
that  a  process  of  clearing  the  way  should  be  put  into  exe 
cution.  The  number  of  Roumanians  sent  away  was  so 
small  as  hardly  to  affect  the  conditions  here ;  and,  as  these 
conditions  were  not  improving,  it  was  decided  to  extend  the 
privilege  to  all  of  our  co-religionists  who  were  out  of  work 
and  who  showed  promise  of  becoming  self-supporting. 
This  conviction  showed  itself  in  a  practical  manner  in  the 
establishment  of  the  Industrial  Removal  Office  in  February 
of  1901. 

Removal  work  was  undertaken  with  well-defined  purposes 


DISTRIBUTION  369 

in  view.  On  the  one  hand  it  was  to  assist  in  making  self- 
supporting  those  unemployed  Jews  of  New  York  who  were 
willing  to  go  West  or  South.  On  the  other  hand  these 
persons  were  to  become  the  centres  of  attraction  for  others 
in  Europe  who  were  destined  for  the  United  States.  That  is 
to  say,  they  were  to  become  a  means  to  divert  those  immi 
grants  from  New  York  to  various  points  in  the  interior  who 
would  under  any  circumstances  come  to  this  country,  and 
who  would  otherwise  take  up  their  domicile  in  New  York. 
As  far  as  the  former  function  is  concerned,  the  Industrial 
Eepioval  Office  is  a  philanthropic  institution  seeking  to  bet 
ter  the  social  and  economic  conditions  of  New  York  Jews. 
The  other  purpose  it  is  seeking  to  carry  out  is  broader  and 
has  as  its  motive  the  desire  to  establish  a  permanent  plan 
of  relief  for  thousands  of  Jews,  who  in  the  aggregate  pre 
sent  a  serious  problem  to  American  Jewry.  The  movement 
in  its  conception  is  thoroughly  rational  and  scientific,  be 
cause  it  is,  so  to  speak,  cleansing  and  inoculating  the  entire 
body  by  local  treatment,  and  in  so  doing  it  is  at  the  same 
time  helping  to  relieve  the  local  distress.1 

Hon.  Frank  P.  Sargent,  Commissioner  General  of  Immi 
gration,2  stated:  "  In  my  judgment  the  smallest  part  of 
the  duty  to  be  discharged  in  successfully  handling  alien 
immigrants  with  a  view  to  the  protection  of  the  people  and 
institutions  of  this  country  is  that  part  now  provided  for 
by  law.  Its  importance,  though  undeniable,  is  relatively 
of  secondary  moment.  It  cannot,  for  example,  compare  in 
practical  value  with,  nor  can  it  take  the  place  of  measures 
to  insure  the  distribution  of  the  many  thousands  who  come 
in  ignorance  of  the  industrial  needs  and  opportunities  of 
this  country,  and,  by  a  more  potent  law  than  that  of  supply 
and  demand,  which  speaks  to  them  here  in  an  unknown 
tongue,  colonizes  alien  communities  in  our  great  cities. 
Such  colonies  are  a  menace  to  the  physical,  moral  and  po 
litical  security  of  the  country.  They  are  hotbeds  for  the 
propagation  and  growth  of  those  false  ideas  of  political 
and  personal  freedom,  whose  germs  have  been  vitalized  by 
ages  of  oppression  under  unequal  and  partial  laws,  which 
find  their  first  concrete  expression  in  resistance  to  the  con- 

1  For  detailed  information  of  the  actual  results  of  removal  work  see  reports 
of   Jewish    Agricultural    and    Industrial    Aid    Society    for    1901,    1902   and    1903. 
See  also  paper  read  before  Jewish  Chautauqua  Summer  Assembly  in  1903,  and 
paper    read    before   the    Third    Conference    of    Jewish    Charities    in    the    United 
States,   New   York,   1904. 

2  Annual  Report  of  the  Commissioner  General  of  Immigration,  1903,  p.  60. 


370  DISTRIBUTION 

stituted  authority,  even  occasionally  in  the  assassination  of 
the  lawful  agents  of  that  authority.  They  are  the  breed 
ing  grounds,  also,  of  moral  depravity ;  the  centres  of  prop 
agation  of  physical  disease.  Above  all,  they  are  the  con 
gested  places  in  the  industrial  body  which  check  the  free 
circulation  of  labor  to  those  parts  where  it  is  most  needed 
and  where  it  can  be  most  benefited.  Do  away  with  them 
and  the  greatest  peril  of  immigration  will  be  removed. ' ' 

The  Commissioner's  official  recommendation  was  antici 
pated  when  the  Removal  Office  was  established;  that  is  to 
say,  artificial  distribution  is  of  itself  one  of  the  strongest 
advocates  of  unrestricted  immigration  and  will  continue  to 
be  so  as  long  as  it  is  effective.  Whether  the  Removal  Office 
has  been  effective  in  carrying  out  its  objects  can  be  judged 
by  the  actual  results  thus  far  obtained.  Though  four  years 
seem  a  very  short  time  in  which  to  pass  upon  the  results 
of  the  work,  it  is  not  excessive  enthusiasm  that  prompts 
those  engaged  in  it  to  say  that  it  has  evolved  out  of  its 
experimental  stage  and  has  shown  its  necessity  for  con 
tinuing,  so  long  as  large  members  of  Jews  emigrate.  Of 
course  the  movement  must  be  judged  in  its  two  aspects. 
As  a  philanthropic  undertaking  it  has  assisted  over  16,000 
persons  to  become  self-supporting,  who  before  were  on  the 
verge  of  dependency.  So  far  as  its  second  function  is 
concerned,  the  results,  though  not  quite  so  definite,  are  still 
encouraging  to  a  surprising  degree,  as  those  results  were 
not  expected  to  be  seen  for  years  to  come.  The  percentage 
of  those  Jewish  immigrants  who  remained  in  the  city  in 
the  years  1898  and  1899  was  79.9  per  cent,  and  79.2  per 
cent,  respectively.  These,  it  should  be  noted,  are  the  two 
years  preceding  the  establishment  of  the  Removal  Office. 
In  the  year  1903,  two  years  thereafter,  the  percentage  of 
immigrants  who  remained  in  New  York  was  71.9  per  cent., 
showing  that  about  8  per  cent,  more  left  for  the  interior 
in  that  year  than  in  1898  and  1899.  Though  this  is  not 
conclusive  evidence  that  the  diversion  of  Jewish  immigra 
tion  has  been  effected  so  quickly,  yet  this  discrepancy  is 
due  in  a  large  degree  to  this  artificial  distribution.  The 
records  of  the  Removal  Bureau  also  show  a  large  number 
of  persons  that  went  into  the  interior  directly  from  Europe 
to  persons  originally  sent  away  by  the  Bureau  from  New 
York,  who  for  the  most  part  would  have  come  to  the  sea 
port  metropolis  had  their  relatives  remained  there. 

The  results  could  have  been  much  more  imposing  were 


DISTBIBUTION  371 

it  not  for  a  two-fold  obstacle  that  has  largely  hampered  the 
activities  of  the  Bureau.  It  has  taxed  the  energies  of  the 
management  to  the  utmost  to  adjust  and  reconcile  in  every 
practical  and  legitimate  manner  the  prejudice  and  timidity 
of  the  immigrant  with  the  same  qualities  —  in  a  different 
form  —  as  the  majority  of  the  people  of  the  interior  com 
munities.  It  has  been  a  process  mainly  of  gaining  the 
confidence  of  the  beneficiary  on  the  one  hand  and  of 
the  benefactor  on  the  other.  The  interior  communities, 
realizing  in  a  large  degree  the  extreme  and  pressing  neces 
sity  for  the  work,  still  failed  at  the  beginning  to  thoroughly 
grasp  the  situation ;  there  was  a  sentimental  desire  on  their 
part  to  help  the  refugees  from  Eastern  European  oppres 
sion,  but  when  they  found  that  the  practical  manner  of 
helping  them  along  the  lines  of  the  Removal  Office  meant 
not  only  sacrifice  of  time  and  money,  but  real  annoyance 
and  disagreeable  experiences,  then  their  charitable  senti 
ment  received  a  shock,  from  which  some  have  not  recovered 
to  this  day.  Industrial  conditions  all  over  the  country  have 
also  been  such  as  to  force  restrictions  upon  orders  for  peo 
ple  and  prevented  the  removal  of  some  deserving  persons 
who  have  been  so  unfortunate  as  not  to  come  within  the 
requirements  demanded  by  the  communities  of  the  interior. 
All  this  has  been  the  great  difficulty  on  the  one  side.  The 
obstacle  to  be  met  with  in  New  York,  on  the  other,  has  been 
the  unwillingness  on  the  part  of  the  majority  of  the  people 
to  leave  the  city.  Not  merely  have  the  attractions  of  the 
wonderful  seaport  metropolis  held  them  back,  but  ignorance 
and  consequent  fear  of  the  unknown  and  mysterious  have 
largely  deterred  them  from  applying  at  the  Bureau.  Only 
such  as  have  been  possessed  of  a  comparatively  fearless 
and  independent  character,  or  who  have  received  encour 
aging  reports  from  friends  or  relatives  in  the  interior  have 
had  the  courage  to  ask  that  they  be  sent  away.  This  forced 
selection,  artificial  in  a  large  measure,  will  probably  show 
results  different  from  that  brought  about  by  a  natural  dis 
tribution.  What  this  difference  will  be  is  hard  to  con 
jecture. 

The  Bureau  has  attempted  to  settle  some  of  the  more 
promising  men  in  the  small  towns  of  the  South  and  the  West 
where  few  or  no  Jews  are  found.  In  a  number  of  cases 
such  settlement  has  been  permanent,  but  better  success  can 
be  obtained  in  settling  the  people  in  the  smaller  towns  when 
such  towns  are  within  a  reasonable  distance  of  some  large 


372  DISTRIBUTION 

city.  The  Bureau's  experience  has  shown  that  the  best 
results  can  be  obtained  where  the  artificial  distribution 
observes  as  closely  as  possible  the  natural  law  of  distribu 
tion  mentioned  before.  Indeed,  of  late  the  exigencies  of 
the  work  have  also  helped  to  gradually  develop  a  system 
of  agencies  in  the  large  cities,  which  already  have  begun  to 
place  a  portion  of  those  sent  them  to  the  small  towns  and 
villages  in  their  immediate  vicinities. 

Though  this  law  of  distribution  is  practically  the  only 
definite  phenomenon  that  has  appeared,  it  cannot  be 
doubted  that  the  movement  contains  far-reaching  possibili 
ties.  What  the  effect  of  this  distribution  will  be  ethnically, 
what  it  will  be  religiously,  as  well  as  what  it  will  be  eco 
nomically  are  questions  of  intense  interest,  which  unfortu 
nately  cannot  be  answered  at  the  present  time. 

Then,  too,  the  question  can  be  viewed  from  the  subjective 
standpoint ;  that  is,  not  merely  as  to  the  effect  upon  those  re 
moved,  but  what  will  it  be  upon  those  who  are  good  enough 
to  receive  them?  Among  the  many  communities  that  have 
been  enlisted  in  the  cause  of  removal  and  who  co-operate 
with  warmth  and  sympathy  with  the  Bureau  are  such  as 
were  practically  altogether  isolated  from  the  rest  of  Amer 
ican  Jewry  until  after  the  visit  of  the  Bureau's  representa 
tive.  Such  a  visit  not  only  succeeded  in  arousing  their 
interest  in  removal  work,  but  encouraged  interest  in  other 
Jewish  questions.  In  other  words  "  removal  "  has  already 
shown  itself  to  be  a  factor  in  arousing  among  our  country 
cousins  what  is  commonly  called,  in  the  pulpit,  a  Jewish 
consciousness. 

It  is  too  obvious  to  require  comment  that  a  great  many 
dependents  apply  at  charitable  institutions  who  are  out  of 
employment  because  there  is  no  work  to  be  found  in  their 
peculiar  line.  However,  there  may  be  a  demand  for  work 
men  of  just  such  trades  in  other  cities  in  the  Union.  That 
fa  to  say,  much  poverty  is  caused  by  the  immobility  of  la- 
/bor,  and  "  inter-removal,"  so  to  speak,  is  a  method  of  re 
ducing  this  evil.  For  the  present,  of  course,  no  such 
general  scheme  of  removal  would  be  justifiable  in  view  of 
the  pressing  needs  of  the  seaport  metropolis,  which  is  la 
boring  under  the  enormous  burden  of  a  stupendous  immi 
gration.  But  should  the  happy  time  come  when  the  stream 
of  immigration  is  successfully  diverted  from  New  York  to 
many  points  in  the  interior,  then  such  a  scheme  would  un 
doubtedly  be  instrumental  in  helping  a  great  many  poor, 


DISTRIBUTION  373 

deserving  persons  and  families  in  becoming  self-support 
ing,  and  in  a  manner  containing  elements  of  smaller  danger 
than  any  other  form  of  charity. 

The   immigration   of  nearly   one   million  'Jews   to   this 
country  since  1881  has  made  necessary  various  plans  for    \x 
their  welfare,  of  which  that  for  their  distribution  through 
out  the  country  should  receive  hearty  encouragement. 


> 


xn 

KTJKAL  SETTLEMENTS 


EUEAL  SETTLEMENTS 

(A)  EASTERN  STATES 

THE  SOUTH  JERSEY  COLONIES 

The  southern  part  of  New  Jersey  contains  vast  stretches 
of  stunted  pine  and  scrub  oak.  Traveling  from  Camden 
over  the  West  Jersey  and  Seashore  Railroad  one  soon  comes 
into  the  heart  of  this  region,  the  home  of  the  garter  snake 
and  the  hare.  The  silence  of  the  tangled  plain  is  unbroken 
save  for  the  woodman's  axe  and  the  noise  of  the  passing 
trains.  Occasionally  isolated  farms  and  small  villages  come 
into  view,  and  as  they  are  passed  the  struggling  vegetation 
again  stands  out  against  the  arching  sky.  The  train  rushes 
on  to  the  coast,  but  before  the  song  of  the  ocean  is  heard 
many  a  mile  of  bushland  must  be  passed.  In  the  winter 
and  in  the  early  spring  the  piercing  northern  winds  find 
little  to  stay  their  course ;  they  wail  and  bluster  among  the 
helpless  pines ;  they  sing  their  sombre  song  down  the  chim 
ney  until  one  feels  chilly  and  sad.  In  the  late  spring  and 
summer  the  skies  are  sunny  and  mild;  there  is  the  briny 
flavor  of  the  ocean  in  the  air,  the  breeze  laden  with  memo 
ries  of  the  sea  is  tender  and  caressing.  But  for  the  inex 
orable  mosquito  one  could  wish  for  no  kinder  starry  nights, 
with  their  fragrance,  their  indefinite  noises,  and  their  pass 
ing  music.  Then  come  those  incomparable  autumn  even 
ings  whose  coolness  does  not  chill  one,  but  the  warm,  moist 
breath  of  the  sea  fills  the  heart  with  dreams  and  content 
ment.  The  same  moon  that  smiles  on  the  ocean  and  plays 
with  its  waves  raises  misty  shapes  over  the  sandy  plain, 
listens  to  the  song  of  the  whip-poor-will,  and  to  the  stridu- 
ous  unceasing  music  of  the  cricket  hosts.  Such  is  the  re 
gion  where  Russian  Jews  have  sought  to  gain  a  livelihood 
from  a  not  over-rich  soil. 

The  first  attempts  at  colonization  in  South  Jersey  date 
back  to  the  early  eighties  of  the  nineteenth  century.  With 
an  enthusiasm  that  often  amounted  to  a  creed,  men  from 

376 


EASTERN  STATES  377 

different  walks  of  life  worked  side  by  side,  dreaming  of 
the  regeneration  of  a  race  too  long  excluded  from  the  field 
and  the  forest.  Alliance,  Cannel,  Rosenhayn,  and  finally 
Woodbine  grew  up  and  led  an  existence  unique  in  the  his 
tory  of  the  race.  Had  the  land  been  more  responsive  there 
would  have  been  fewer  neglected  acres;  as  it  is  the  many 
flourishing  farms  conquered  from  the  wilderness  by  Jewish 
hands  bear  witness  that  from  among  the  exiles  from  Russia 
there  were  men  of  earnest  and  steadfast  purpose  who 
shrunk  from  no  hardship.  Many  years  of  self-denial  and 
of  unceasing  toil  have  borne  their  fruit,  and  while  one  re 
joices  with  those  who  succeeded,  one  cannot  help  thinking 
regretfully  of  those  who  found  themselves  compelled  to  give 
up  the  unequal  struggle,  and  returned  to  the  city  and  the 
tenement  house. 

The  spring  of  1882  marked  the  arrival  of  the  first  Jew 
ish  settlers  in  South  Jersey.  In  the  place  now  called  Alli 
ance  twenty-five  families  undertook  to  do  the  pioneer  work 
of  the  settlement.  The  tract  of  land,  comprising  eleven 
hundred  acres,  was  purchased  for  the  purpose  by  the  He 
brew  Emigrant  Aid  Society.  It  was  for  the  most  part  a 
wilderness  of  bushland,  and  the  few  small  areas  that  showed 
signs  of  a  once  attempted  cultivation  had  again  returned  to 
their  primitive  state.  Alliance  is  located  in  Pittsgrove 
township,  county  of  Salem.  It  is  thirty-three  miles  from 
Philadelphia,  as  the  crow  flies,  rather  less  than  five  miles 
from  Vineland,  about  nine  miles  from  Millville,  and  almost 
ten  miles  from  Bridgeton.  Carmel  and  Rosenhayn,  situated 
within  a  few  miles  of  Alliance,  were  founded  in  1883 ;  the 
former  by  Michael  Heilprin,  the  latter  by  the  Hebrew  Emi 
grant  Aid  Society.  Carmel  and  Rosenhayn  are  both  situ 
ated  in  Cumberland  county,  the  one  between  Millville  and 
Bridgeton,  the  other  between  Bridgeton  and  Alliance. 
Finally  in  1891,  the  Woodbine  colony  was  founded  by  the 
Baron  de  Hirsch  Fund.  Woodbine  is  in  Cape  May  county, 
fifty-six  miles  from  Camden  and  twenty-five  miles  from 
Cape  May  City.  Within  nine  miles  of  Woodbine  is  Sea  Isle 
City,  and  Ocean  City  is  sixteen  miles  distant.  The  early 
days  of  Alliance,  Carmel,  Rosenhayn,  and  even  Woodbine 
had  many  features  in  common.  They  needed  all  the  enthu 
siasm  and  determination  of  the  would-be  farmers,  for  it 
soon  became  evident  that  there  were  almost  innumerable 
difficulties  before  them.  The  land  had  to  be  cleared  and 
made  fit  to  receive  the  seed,  and  months  were  to  pass  before 


378  RUEAL  SETTLEMENTS 

any  returns  could  be  expected.  Meanwhile  they  were 
obliged  to  live  in  barns  or  in  over-crowded  houses.  Pro 
visions  were  scarce,  the  roads  were  poor.  In  Alliance  the 
colonists  lived  during  the  first  year  on  $8  to  $12  a  month 
given  to  them  by  the  Hebrew  Emigrant  Aid  Society.  In 
Carmel  and  Rosenhayn  they  found  what  work  they  could 
with  the  neighboring  farmers  or  secured  tailoring  work 
from  the  city.  In  Woodbine  they  were  more  fortunate  in 
that  there  was  enough  to  do  for  everybody  in  clearing  a 
part  of  the  fifty-three  hundred  acre  tract  of  land,  digging 
cellars,  cutting  out  streets,  building  roads,  and  the  like. 
It  was  hard  work,  especially  for  those  not  used  to  outdoor 
life.  Yet  with  all  the  privations  of  overcrowded  quarters, 
unsatisfactory  food,  and  lack  of  warm  clothing  in  the  win 
ter  months,  few  complaints  were  heard.  The  work  on  the 
wind-swept  plain  was  hard,  but  the  management  paid  liv 
ing  wages  and  the  colonists  bore  their  hardships  cheerfully. 
However,  there  came  a  time  in  the  life  of  Woodbine  —  as  it 
did  with  Carmel,  Alliance,  and  Rosenhayn,  —  when  the  fu 
ture  seemed  full  of  gloom.  When  the  poor,  wild  soil  did 
not  yield  what  it  could  not  yield,  when  willing  hands  failed 
to  find  work  that  would  help  fill  the  bread  basket,  and 
when  the  aid  of  charity  had  to  be  invoked ;  then  there  was 
but  little  sunshine  to  cheer  the  dismal  gloom.  And  the 
colonists  had  reason  to  feel  discouraged.  Theirs  was  a 
thin,  shifting  soil,  which  ages  ago  had  been  sorted  and  re 
sorted  by  the  waves,  and  the  ocean  was  chary  about  leaving 
it  little  besides  the  rounded  grains  of  quartz  which  compose 
98  per  cent,  of  the  soil.  Long  years  of  hopeless  toil,  theirs 
and  their  children's,  were  before  them,  and  after  all  that 
work  honestly  and  conscientiously  performed  what  would 
they  have?  Unlike  the  fertile  plains  of  the  northwest,  or 
the  Tchernosyem  of  southern  Russia,  these  South  Jersey 
soils  call  for  the  application  of  manures  or  of  commercial 
fertilizers,  and  without  them  they  yield  scarcely  anything. 
But  even  with  these  in  their  possession  the  colonists  were 
at  a  disadvantage.  The  use  of  artificial  manures  requires 
considerably  more  knowledge  of  the  soil  and  of  soil  condi 
tions  than  where  none  are  used.  The  colonists  had  not  that 
knowledge,  nor  the  knowledge  of  market  conditions  in  the 
large  cities,  or  even  adequate  local  markets.  Yet  if  the 
South  Jersey  colonies  are  to  attain  prosperity  as  agricul 
tural  colonies,  or  if  they  are  to  retain  that  measure  of  pros 
perity  which  they  have  already  achieved,  they  must  have 


EASTERN  STATES  379 

local  markets.  It  will  be  shown  below  that  such  markets 
can  be  had.  As  to  the  New  York  and  Philadelphia  mar 
kets,  the  colonists  found  that  their  produce  had  to  compete 
with  the  harvests  of  the  alluvial  soils  of  the  east  and  the 
south,  and  the  owners  of  these  soils  had  the  experience,  the 
means,  and  the  favorable  railroad  rates  that  the  South 
Jersey  settlers  did  not  possess.  The  survival  of  the  four 
colonies  is  due  to  the  establishment  of  factories.  In  Alli 
ance  a  cigar  factory  and  later  a  shirt  factory  were  in  opera 
tion  during  the  early  years.  In  Carmel  and  Rosenhayn, 
the  shirt,  wrapper,  and  clothing  factories  which  were  in 
operation  at  one  time  or  another  made  possible  the  agri 
cultural  development  that  has  taken  place.  In  Woodbine 
the  establishment  of  a  village  and  factories  was  provided 
for  by  the  founders.  Men  with  large  families  could  send 
some  of  their  members  to  the  factory  while  the  others 
worked  on  the  farm ;  men  of  small  families  could  sell  their 
produce  to  those  who  had  none. 

The  men  who  came  to  live  in  the  South  Jersey  colonies 
hailed  from  many  parts  of  European  Russia.  Poland  and 
Great  Russia  were  well  represented,  but  the  greatest  num 
ber  came  from  South  Russia  —  such  as  Bessarabia,  Podolia, 
Volhynia,  Kiev.  Their  antecedents  were  as  different  as 
their  birth-places.  There  were  among  them  men  who  had 
farmed  to  some  extent  in  Russia.  There  were  those  who 
had  lived  in  villages  and  traded  there  and  had  become  fa 
miliar  with  farming  life.  There  were  skilled  laborers  and 
small  shop-keepers.  Among  the  younger  men  there  were 
also  a  few  who  had  enjoyed  some  educational  advantages 
and  were  carried  to  the  settlements  by  their  enthusiasm, 
the  desire  to  help  the  return  of  the  Jew  to  agricultural  life. 
This  heterogeneous  mass,  coming  as  it  did  from  many 
places,  and  from  different  stations  in  life,  was  made  homo 
geneous  by  a  common  purpose.  The  early  days  of  the  col 
onies,  with  their  communal  life,  were  marked  with  a  feeling 
of  solidarity.  Even  the  most  ignorant  settler  was  not  a 
stranger  to  the  sentiment  of  a  common  purpose.  In  every 
colony  early  provision  was  made  for  public  buildings,  and 
the  synagogue  and  the  public  school  rose  side  by  side.  Not 
withstanding  the  similar  conditions  of  settlement,  the  three 
older  colonies  soon  came  to  have  very  distinctive  peculiari 
ties.  Alliance  from  the  first  devoted  more  time  to  agricul 
ture;  the  appearance  of  its  people,  their  mode  of  living, 
showed  the  farmer;  while  in  Carmel  and  Rosenhayn  the 


380  RURAL  SETTLEMENTS 

greater  predominance  of  the  tailoring  trades  showed  itself 
in  the  physique  and  to  some  extent  in  the  radical  views 
that  one  finds  among  the  factory  employees  in  the  East  Side 
of  New  York. 

The  life  in  the  South  Jersey  colonies  has  produced  a 
visible  effect  on  their  inhabitants.  It  has  influenced  the 
thought  and  action  of  the  older  people,  it  has  molded  the 
character  and  the  ways  of  the  young.  It  offers  to  both 
advantages  which  would  not  be  at  their  disposal  in  a  large 
city.  Of  the  settlers  in  Woodbine  seventy-five  per  cent, 
own  their  homes,  as  do  one-half  of  those  in  Rosenhayn. 
The  factory  life  for  those  who  are  obliged  to  work  in  the 
factory  is  not  as  injurious  to  health  as  in  the  large  cities, 
for  the  ventilation  is  better,  the  space  allotted  to  each  is 
greater,  the  light  and  sunshine  have  more  easy  access. 
The  relations  between  employer  and  employee  are  more 
personal,  the  individual  is  a  more  important  part  of  the 
population  and  his  direct  participation  in  communal  affairs 
reacts  favorably  on  him.  If  there  are  no  rich  men  in  the 
colonies,  there  are  also  no  poor  —  poor  as  measured  by  the 
standards  of  the  New  York  Ghetto.  The  neighbors  know 
one  another  and  are  always  willing  to  help  those  who  are 
less  fortunate  than  themselves.  But  above  all  there  are 
the  great  advantages  to  the  young.  The  young  lungs  ex 
pand  freely  in  the  bracing  air;  the  young  eyes  roam 
freely  over  the  wide  expanse  of  field  and  forest ;  the  young 
legs  run  as  they  will.  With  the  free  skies  above  them,  with 
a  healthy  home  atmosphere  surrounding  them,  with  the 
duties  of  citizenship  instilled  into  them,  and  the  love  for 
their  country  growing  with  them  as  they  grow,  they  are 
laying  the  foundations  for  normal  and  useful  membership 
in  society.  Should  the  time  come  when  they  shall  long  for 
a  wider  sphere  of  activity  than  their  native  village  affords, 
they  can  go  forth  equipped  in  strength  and  vitality. 

With  all  these  advantages  there  are  conditions  which 
place  the  colonists  at  a  great  disadvantage.  Those  of  their 
number  who  work  in  the  factory  have  a  very  limited  field 
of  employment.  When  the  house  becomes  too  small  for 
the  farmer  he  must  get  along  as  best  he  can;  when  the 
factory  in  which  his  children  are  employed  is  idle  he  is 
often  obliged  to  run  into  debt.  When  his  children  grow  up 
and  find  no  congenial  occupation  in  the  small  village  they 
leave  him  to  go  to  the  city  to  live  among  strangers  and  to 
be  exposed  to  its  many  temptations.  When  the  crops  fail 


EASTERN  STATES  381 

he  often  finds  himself  obliged  to  sell  his  horse  or  his  cow, 
and  must  at  times  walk  miles  in  order  to  reach  the  nearest 
store  or  the  post-office.  He  has  not  as  many  creature  com 
forts  as  his  city  cousin,  nor  has  he  his  discomforts. 

Local  differences  occur  in  the  soils  of  Alliance,  Carmel, 
Rosenhayn,  and  Woodbine,  but  on  the  whole,  they  belong 
to  the  same  type  of  soils  with  a  common  geological  history. 
The  prevailing  type  is  a  sandy  soil  to  sandy  loam  with  a 
clayey  to  gravelly  sub-soil.  The  underdrainage  is  excel 
lent  and  the  upper  soil,  being  light  and  porous,  is  seldom 
in  danger  of  becoming  waterlogged.  Thanks  to  the  splen 
did  underdrainage  and  openness,  the  soil  is  mellow  and 
warm  and  admirably  adapted  for  the  raising  of  early  truck 
and  berries.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  more  liable  to  suffer 
and  actually  does  suffer  in  dry  seasons  for  lack  of  moisture, 
because  of  its  slight  waterholding  power.  Such  is  not  the 
case  with  the  heavier  soils  of  North  Jersey.  Owing  to  its 
lightness  and  shifting  character,  the  surface  soil  is  apt  to  be 
blown  away  by  the  strong  winds  in  winter  and  spring. 
For  this  reason  it  is  best  not  to  plow  the  land  in  the  fall 
and  to  keep  it  covered  with  some  crop  during  the  winter. 

The  crops  raised  in  the  colonies  for  the  local  and  more 
distant  markets  are  berries  and  grapes,  tomatoes,  sweet 
potatoes,  and  fruit.  These  are  the  more  important  crops, 
and  many  other  crops  are  raised  to  a  slighter  extent.  The 
South  Jersey  peaches  are  famed  for  their  delicious  flavor ; 
Vineland  peaches  always  find  ready  buyers,  and  the  Wood 
bine  peaches  are  fully  as  good.  Then  there  are  sweet  pota 
toes,  which  have  not  their  equal  outside  of  New  Jersey, 
and  they  command  a  correspondingly  higher  price  in  the 
market.  The  farmers  in  the  colonies  raise  large  quantities 
of  berries,  notably  strawberries.  Part  of  these  are  made 
into  wine  and  have  a  limited  but  appreciative  circle  of 
patrons.  Grape  wine  is  produced  in  large  quantity,  par 
ticularly  in  Alliance.  Many  gallons  are  sold  in  New  York 
and  Philadelphia,  the  greater  part  to  supply  the  Passover 
trade.  It  is  claimed  by  competent  judges  that  some  of  the 
port  wine  from  the  South  Jersey  colonies  is  superior  to  that 
from  California. 

In  the  spring  of  1900  a  canning  factory  was  established 
in  Alliance.  Its  short  career  has  already  demonstrated  its 
great  usefulness  and  the  results  that  may  be  expected. 
There  have  been  canned  strawberries,  blackberries,  cherries, 
pears,  apples,  peaches,  plums,  beans,  peas,  beets,  tomatoes, 


382  RURAL  SETTLEMENTS 

sweet  potatoes,  and  in  smaller  quantity,  grapes,  corn,  cit 
rons,  huckleberries,  cranberries,  and  gooseberries.  The  Al- 
livine  Company,  which  owns  the  canning  factory,  is  also 
trying  to  give  object  lessons  on  its  own  farm,  and  has  estab 
lished  lecture  courses  on  agricultural  topics.  The  Jewish 
farmers  thus  find  a  local  market  for  their  produce,  are  ren 
dered  independent  of  the  commission  merchant  in  the  city, 
who  is  at  times  unscrupulous,  and  are,  moreover,  instructed 
in  the  proper  methods  of  farming. 

Dairying  has  been  receiving  considerable  attention.  The 
milk  produced  is  sold  in  the  local  markets  at  satisfactory 
prices.  Bridgeton,  Vineland,  and  Millville  are  convenient 
markets  for  the  three  older  colonies,  while  the  milk  pro 
duced  in  Woodbine  is  sold  in  the  village  of  Woodbine  itself, 
and  to  a  slight  extent  at  the  seashore  resorts.  The  dairy 
of  the  Baron  de  Hirsch  Agricultural  School,  conducted 
according  to  the  most  modern  methods,  and  producing  milk 
of  the  finest  quality,  tried  to  run  a  milk  wagon  to  Ocean 
City.  The  milk  was  in  large  demand,  but  the  distance  was 
too  great  and  injurious  to  the  horses,  and  it  was  therefore 
decided  to  dispose  of  the  milk  in  Woodbine  itself.  There 
is  no  doubt,  however,  that  the  several  dairymen  in  Wood 
bine  could  combine  to  establish  a  milk  depot  in  Ocean  City, 
shipping  their  milk  by  rail. 

There  are,  probably,  about  4,000  acres  under  cultivation 
in  the  colonies.  In  the  three  older  settlements  there  are 
about  1,100  acres  under  field  crops,  600  acres  under  truck, 
550  acres  under  berries,  and  250  acres  under  grapes.  Of 
the  three,  Alliance  is  by  far  the  most  prosperous,  and  agri 
culturally  the  most  important.  Thus,  the  value  of  the 
Rosenhayn  farms,  with  a  total  acreage  of  1,800,  is  only 
about  $60,000,  whereas  that  of  the  Alliance  farms,  with  a 
total  acreage  of  some  1,700,  is  about  $135,000;  and  the 
value  of  the  products  sold  from  the  Alliance  farms  was 
greater  than  that  of  the  others  put  together. 

The  colonies  have  not  had  a  continuous  growth.  Periods 
of  comparative  prosperity  alternated  with  periods  of  de 
pression,  depending  largely  upon  the  condition  of  the  fac 
tories.  Woodbine,  like  the  rest,  had  its  periods  of  depres 
sion;  nevertheless,  its  growth  has  been  more  steady,  and 
to-day  it  has  a  population  of  about  2,500  persons,  while 
Alliance,  Carmel,  and  Rosenhayn  (including  Carton  Road), 
taken  together,  have  a  population  of  somewhat  about  1,000, 


EASTERN  STATES  383 

~and  this,  notwithstanding  that  they  were  founded  nine 
years  before  Woodbine. 

The  original  25  families  that  came  to  Alliance  in  1882 
were  joined  by  others  until  there  were  in  all  67  families 
in  the  place.  As  the  hardships  increased,  many  became 
discouraged  and  by  1884  only  50  families  remained.  At 
this  critical  time  aid  was  extended  to  the  colonists,  and 
the  condition  of  the  colony  improved  perceptibly.  The 
crop  returns  gave  additional  encouragement  leading  to  the 
increase  of  the  cultivated  area.  In  1889  the  total  popula 
tion  was  529,  and  it  has  remained  about  the  same.  In 
1889  the  farmers  owned  1,400  acres  of  land,  of  which  889 
were  under  cultivation;  in  1901  they  owned  1,702  acres, 
of  which  1,379  were  under  cultivation.  These  few  figures 
indicate  clearly  enough  that  those  of  the  Alliance  settlers 
who  remained  on  their  farms  gradually  added  to  their 
holdings,  and  have  extended  their  agricultural  holdings. 

In  Carmel  there  were  16  families  that  came  out  in  1882 ; 
seven  of  these  left  in  discouragement;  others  came  to  take 
their  places,  and  the  population  changed  from  time  to  time 
until  in  1889  there  were  286  persons  in  the  place.  To  the 
original  tract  of  848  acres  1,500  were  added  in  1889,  and 
36  new  houses  were  erected.  There  are  now  about  600 
persons.  In  1889  there  were  124  acres  cleared;  now  more 
than  700. 

In  Rosenhayn  there  were  6  families  in  1883.  In  1889 
there  were  67  families,  containing  294  persons.  They 
owned  1,912  acres,  of  which  261  were  under  cultivation. 
The  number  of  persons  has  not  increased  much.  In  1901 
they  owned  1,862  acres,  of  which  662  were  cleared. 

In  the  late  summer  of  1891  a  few  men  stepped  from  the 
train  on  the  old  wooden  platform  of  the  Woodbine  station, 
located  on  the  West  Jersey  Railroad.  These  were  the  van 
guard  of  the  settlers.  There  was  not  much  to  greet  them. 
Three  old  dwellings  stood  along  the  Dennisville  road,  quite 
near  the  station ;  beyond  and  around  them  were  the  darken 
ing  woods.  Save  for  the  broad  avenue  along  which  their 
train  was  even  then  speeding  towards  the  end  of  the  Cape 
there  was  scarcely  a  dozen  square  rods  free  from  the  un 
tamed  oak  and  pine.  As  one  looks  from  the  new  station  plat 
form  over  the  hundreds  of  cottages,  at  the  row  of  busy  fac 
tories,  and  the  straight  streets  with  their  poplars  and  ma 
ples,  he  would  not  recognize  the  wilderness  of  thirteen  years 
ago.  This  is  the  industrial  Woodbine,  forming  the  nucleus 


384  RURAL  SETTLEMENTS 

around  which  are  clustered  about  50  farms.  The  growth 
of  the  village  has  depended  entirely  on  the  growth  of  its 
industries,  and  the  activity  of  the  farmers  has  been  regu 
lated  by  the  local  market.  Of  the  public  buildings  in 
Woodbine  there  are  the  Woodbine  Central  School  building, 
which  is  used  for  municipal,  educational  and  social  pur 
poses,  and  the  synagogue.  Near  by  is  the  Talmud  Torah 
(Hebrew  school).  A  Baptist  church  has  been  converted 
into  a  synagogue.  Woodbine  has  the  distinction  of  having 
established  the  first  kindergarten  in  the  county.  Of  the 
250  houses  in  the  village,  nearly  all  are  owned  by  the  inhab 
itants.  Twenty  miles  of  streets  have  been  laid  out  and 
partly  graded;  12  miles  of  farm  roads  have  been  built,  an 
electric  light  plant  and  pumping  station  have  been  estab 
lished,  a  volunteer  fire  brigade  has  been  organized.  There 
are  a  large  hotel  in  the  village,  three  public  schools  besides 
the  central  school,  a  public  bath  house,  a  meeting  hall,  and 
two  parks  reserved  from  the  forest  area.  The  50  families 
*hat  came  in  1891  increased  in  number  by  the  influx  of  new 
arrivals  until  now  there  are  about  2,500.  Five  building  and 
loan  associations  have  invested  thousands  of  dollars  in 
Woodbine  real  estate,  thus  proving  their  confidence  in  its 
stability  and  prosperity. 

Throughout  the  colonies  the  mercantile  pursuits  that  have 
arisen  are  rather  insignificant.  Grocery  stores  and  meat 
markets  have  been  started.  Shoe  stores,  clothing  stores, 
bakeries,  and  the  like  have  been  established  to  supply  local 
needs.  As  a  possible  exception  it  may  be  admitted  that 
some  stores  in  Woodbine  sometimes  serve  to  supply  the 
needs  of  neighboring  villages.  Moreover,  the  brick  yard  in 
Woodbine  sells  bricks  outside  of  the  village,  and  consider 
able  quantities  of  cord  wood  are  sold  from  Woodbine  to  the 
Millville,  Vineland  and  other  glass  factories. 

Recent  statistics  show  that  there  are  a  considerable  num 
ber  of  factories  in  the  colonies.  Alliance  has  a  cloak  factory 
and  a  canning  factory;  Rosenhayn  has  a  clothing  factory 
and  a  brick  yard,  and  manufactures  to  some  extent  tin 
ware  and  hoisery.  Carmel  has  a  clothing  factory,  and  two 
others  where  ladies'  waists  and  wrappers  are  manufactured. 
Woodbine  has  a  clothing  factory,  a  machine  and  tool  plant, 
a  hat  factory,  a  shirt  factory,  a  small  cigar  factory,  a  knit- 
goods  factory,  an  establishment  for  making  driven  well 
points,  and  a  brick  yard. 

As  compared  to  the  dormant  existence  of  the  small  vil- 


EASTERN  STATES  385 

lages  in  South  Jersey,  the  Jewish  colonies  are  wide  awake 
and  progressive.  There  is  a  greater  range  of  social  ques 
tions  discussed  there.  There  is  the  consciousness  of  common 
aims.  Political  clubs,  social  clubs,  literary  societies.,  mili 
tary  organizations,  benevolent  organizations  have  been  es 
tablished,  and  many  are  contributing  to  a  better  and  broader 
life.  Though  most  of  the  voters  have  been  naturalized  in 
recent  years  they  display  an  intelligent  interest  in  national 
as  well  as  in  local  politics.  It  may  sound  strange,  yet  it  is 
true,  that,  unlike  their  neighbors,  they  consider  national 
and  international  affairs  above  the  local  affairs.  This  seems 
to  be  characteristic  of  the  Jew.  He  watches  with  deep  con 
cern  the  happenings  in  various  countries,  as  if  he  felt  him 
self  a  citizen  of  the  whole  world.  World  politics,  the  events 
which  concern  all  men,  are  to  him  of  paramount  interest. 
It  may  be  that  his  long  wanderings  have  taught  him  to  as 
sume  this  mental  attitude.  It  may  be  that  this  habit  of 
thought  is  inherent  in  him,  yet  the  visitor  to  Woodbine,  for 
instance,  can  convince  himself  of  the  truth  of  the  above  ob- ' 
servation.  On  a  Saturday  afternoon  he  will  find  the  older 
people  of  the  village  gathered  in  the  post-office  or  in  the  rail 
road  station  warmly  discussing  the  happenings  in  Germany, 
France,  or  Russia.  The  sewing  machine,  the  plow,  or  the 
lathe  are  forgotten  for  the  moment.  Dressed  in  his  Sabbath 
clothes  and  wrapped  in  the  Sabbath  mood,  he  looks  into  the 
outside  world  and  judges  it  according  to  his  light.  The 
Jewish  newspaper  informs  him  in  Yiddish  of  the  doings 
outside  his  own  narrow  sphere  of  activity  and  with  this  in 
formation  as  a  basis  he  indulges  in  endless  discussion. 

It  is  otherwise  with  his  children.  Growing  up  as  they  do 
under  freer  skies,  they  imbibe  something  of  the  new  spirit. 
The  old  traditions  are  not  as  infallible  to  them  as  to  their 
fathers  and  their  thoughts  wander  in  other  directions.  For 
them  the  English  newspaper  replaces  the  Yiddish,  the  school 
history  is  a  greater  authority  than  oral  tradition.  And  yet 
they  are  not  altogether  unmindful  of  this  tradition.  They 
stand  between  the  old  and  the  new.  They  are  in  a  transition 
stage,  and  they  partake  of  what  their  fathers  are,  and  also 
of  what  their  own  children  will  be.  They  are  Americans, 
with  a  touch  of  the  foreign  spirit  still  clinging  to  them,  but 
somehow  they  do  not  seem  to  be  the  worse  for  it.  Their 
home  life  is  healthy,  there  is  no  viciousness,  and  little  dis 
obedience  to  established  authority.  They  are  fond  of  danc 
ing,  of  private  theatricals,  and  of  social  gatherings  in  gen- 


386  RURAL  SETTLEMENTS 

eral.  The  factory  atmosphere  is  often  reflected  in  their 
mode  of  thought.  It  is  no  rare  occurrence  to  see  boys 
of  fifteen  or  sixteen  discussing  in  all  seriousness  some  ques 
tion  in  sociology,  or  political  economy,  of  which  they  know 
little  or  nothing. 

Most  of  the  factories  are  closed  on  Saturday.  The  elders 
solemnly  repair  to  the  synagogue  and  as  solemnly  return 
when  the  services  are  over.  The  village  is  in  a  Sabbath 
spirit,  peaceful  yet  joyous.  When  evening  comes  there  is 
usually  some  entertainment. 

Theft  and  drunkenness  are  practically  unknown  in  the 
colonies,  although  wine  and  beer  are  consumed  in  consider 
able  quantities.  But  there  are  features  which  are  less  fortu 
nate  and  not  at  all  commendable.  One  comes  across  ig 
norance  and  narrowness,  stubbornness  of  spirit  and  unelean- 
liness  of  person.  Yet  even  these  are  not  as  frequent  as  they 
used  to  be.  But  there  is  one  feature  that  deserves  mention 
—  this  is  the  neighborly  spirit,  and  the  true  charity  that  the 
colonists  display.  Quietly,  unostentatiously,  they  help  one 
another,  often  sharing  the  last  crust  of  bread.  When  the 
severe  winter  days  come,  men  often  walk  a  long  distance  to 
cut  some  fire  wood  for  a  sick  neighbor;  women  frequently 
walk  for  miles  through  the  snow  in  order  to  bring  food  or 
money  to  a  needy  individual.  The  women  in  Woodbine 
have  organized  a  Woman's  Aid  Society  and  the  good  work 
it  is  doing  deserves  commendation.  Those  who  are  inclined 
to  accuse  the  Russian  Jew  of  unwillingness  to  work,  and  of 
dependence  upon  charity,  will  find  upon  visiting  the  South 
Jersey  colonies,  only  peaceful  and  industrious  people  always 
ready  to  work.  There  are  no  loafers,  no  tramps,  no 
gamblers. 

The  colonists  spend  a  considerable  portion  of  their  income 
on  public  buildings.  They  have  their  lodges,  circulating 
libraries,  evening  schools,  lecture  courses  and  the  like,  and 
this  healthy  social  and  home  life  speaks  well  for  the  individ 
uals  and  the  community. 

The  many  vicissitudes  through  which  the  colonists  have 
passed  have  left  their  mark.  Some  of  the  earlier  settlers 
have  returned  to  the  city  population,  and  in  their  leisure 
moments  recount  perhaps  the  hardships  which  confronted 
them.  It  is  for  them  to  decide  whether  they  acted  wisely. 
But  those  who  stayed  have  continued  to  do  their  work. 
They  have  not  attained  great  wealth,  nor  great  fame,  but 
they  have  lived  and  honestly  earned  their  bread. 


EASTERN  STATES  387 

Let  those  who  have  so  generously  worked  to  found  the 
colonies  remember  that  the  mere  withdrawing  of  people 
from  the  tenement  districts  in  the  great  cities  and  their 
settling  in  the  country  is  in  itself  a  worthy  work,  and  if 
there  should  be  ten  per  cent.,  or  even  one  per  cent,  of  these 
settlers  who  entirely  depend  on  farming,  the  work  remains 
worthy.  Let  the  colonies  have  more  factories.  The  farmers 
will  take  care  of  themselves,  and  the  greater  the  local  de 
mand  for  their  produce,  the  greater  will  be  the  area  under 
cultivation.  If  the  liberal  policy  of  inducing  reliable  man 
ufacturers  to  establish  themselves  in  Woodbine  is  continued 
by  the  Trustees  of  the  Baron  de  Hirsch  Fund  there  is  little 
doubt  that  the  next  ten  years  will  see  considerable  growth. 

The  experience  of  years  brought  out  quite  clearly  the  fact 
that  it  is  practically  impossible  in  many  instances  to  con 
vert  a  small  trader  into  a  farmer.  The  ancestral  conditions 
and  the  habits  of  a  lifetime  cannot  be  changed  at  a  mo 
ment's  notice.  Earnest  as  is  the  purpose  of  the  would-be 
farmer,  and  great  as  is  his  determination,  he  very  often 
finds  himself  obliged  to  admit  that  the  opportunity  has  come 
to  him  too  late  in  life.  The  occupation  of  a  lifetime  has 
unfitted  him  for  farming.  With  this  experience  in  mind  the 
founders  of  the  Baron  de  Hirsch  Agricultural  School  at 
Woodbine  have  formulated  a  plan  for  the  education  of  the 
children  of  immigrant  Jews.  In  the  few  years  of  its  ex 
istence  the  school  has  given  ample  proof  of  its  usefulness. 
It  aims  to  give  its  pupils  a  practical,  agricultural  education, 
in  order  that  the  graduates  may  ( after  an  apprenticeship  of 
some  years  with  practical  farmers)  be  competent  to  manage 
farms  of  their  own.  The  school  has  now  about  120  pupils,  of 
whom  about  ten  per  cent,  are  girls.  Theoretical  instruc 
tion  in  the  class-room  is  given  together  with  practical  work 
on  the  school  farms,  in  the  dairy,  blacksmith  shop,  poultry 
houses,  green  houses,  etc. 

Independently  of  the  Woodbine  school,  an  agricultural 
school  has  been  established  at  Doylestown,  Pa.  The  curri 
culum  is  somewhat  different  from  that  of  the  Woodbine 
school,  but  its  aim,  as  in  the  other  case,  is  primarily  the  in 
struction  of  the  children  of  immigrants  in  the  arts  of  hus 
bandry. 

The  work  of  these  two  institutions  is  watched  with  deep 
interest.  The  visitor  to  the  schools,  as  he  sees  the  boys  work 
ing  in  the  fields,  or  as  he  watches  them  in  their  moments  of 
recreation,  rushing  a  foot  ball  against  the  opposing  line,  or 


388  RURAL  SETTLEMENTS 

running  on  a  base  ball  field,  can  not  but  feel  glad  and  hope 
ful.  He  remembers  the  stooping,  narrow-chested  men  in  the 
crowded  thoroughfares,  he  remembers  the  long  centuries  of 
artificial  Ghetto  life,  and  he  rejoices  for  those  who  shall 
grow  broad  of  shoulder  and  brawny  of  arm,  who  shall  have 
laughter  in  their  eyes,  who  shall  contribute  as  great  a  share 
to  the  physical  work  of  the  world  as  has  been  contributed 
by  their  race  to  the  mental  and  the  spiritual  life. 

THE  NEW  ENGLAND  FARMS 

Individual  Jewish  farmers  are  scattered  through  the  New 
England  states,  and  own  farms  in  Rhode  Island,  Massachu 
setts,  Connecticut,  Maine,  Vermont,  and  New  Hampshire. 
By  far  the  greater  number  are  located  in  Connecticut,  and 
they  form  the  most  important  section  of  the  Jewish  farming 
community  in  New  England.     The  first  settlement   dates 
back  to  1891,  when  a  Jewish  family,  having  saved  some 
money  by  work  in  a  New  England  mill,  purchased  a  farm 
near  New  London,  Connecticut.     The  gregarious  instincts 
of  the  race,  and  particularly  the  desire  for  adequate  reli 
gious  life,  led  this  family  to  exert  itself  in  inducing  friends 
and  relatives  to  establish  themselves  in  the  neighborhood. 
In  1892  a  creamery  was  erected  by  the  Baron  de  Hirsch 
Fund,  and  new  settlers  established  themselves  in  the  vicinity 
of   New    London,    Oakdale,    Palmerton,    Chesterfield,    and 
Salem.    In  1893  a  number  of  Russian  Jews  employed  in  the 
woolen  mills,  then  in  operation  in  Colchester,  invested  their 
savings  in  the  purchase  of  farms  in  the  neighborhood.    Hav 
ing  had  experience  with  dairy  farming  in  Russia,  they  found 
it  more  profitable  to  devote  themselves  to  dairy  farming  on 
their  new  lands.     Most  of  these  settled  in  New  London 
County  and  also  in  the  neighboring  counties  of  Middlesex 
and  Hartford.    Some  farmers  also  located  about  eight  miles 
from  Bridgeport  and  New  Haven.    These  two  cities  are  ex 
cellent  markets  for  dairy  products,  and  but  for  the  great 
cost  of  land  near  the  cities  the  settlers  would  have  estab 
lished  themselves  nearer  to  the  market  towns. 

The  position  of  the  Jewish  farmers  in  New  England  is 
quite  different  from  that  of  the  colonists  in  South  Jersey. 
The  character  of  their  land,  their  methods  of  farming,  the 
market  conditions  are  all  different.  Yet  the  greatest  dis 
tinction  is  due  to  their  comparative  isolation  from  their  co 
religionists.  They  do  not  have  distinct  Jewish  agricultural 


EASTERN  STATES  389 

colonies  like  those  in  New  Jersey ;  they  bought  farms  where 
they  could  get  them,  and  are  therefore  surrounded  in  most 
cases  by  Yankee  neighbors.  These  played  a  momentous  part 
in  molding  the  farming  life  of  the  Jewish  settlers.  The 
latter  had  many  difficulties  to  contend  with.  Beginning 
with  limited  means  and  a  limited  knowledge  of  their  en 
vironment  they  were  placed  at  a  still  greater  disadvantage 
by  the  exhausted  condition  of  their  land;  because  of  their 
comparatively  small  means  they  found  themselves  obliged  to 
purchase  some  of  the  so-called  ' '  abandoned  farms. ' '  These 
are  farms  which  had  been  treated  carelessly  and  unscien 
tifically  for  generations  until  their  productivity  was  so 
reduced  as  to  render  them  unprofitable  for  further  cultiva 
tion.  In  many  cases  their  owners  found  themselves  com 
pelled  to  sell  them  for  a  much  smaller  price  than  the  cost 
of  the  buildings  alone.  It  is  evident  that  the  improvement 
and  the  profitable  cultivation  of  such  exhausted  land  re 
quires  the  unceasing  work  and  care  of  years.  The  fact  that 
90  per  cent,  of  the  Jewish  farmers  remain  on  their  lands 
speaks  much  in  their  favor.  Notwithstanding  their  limited 
capital,  their  insufficient  knowledge,  and  the  poverty  of  the 
land,  they  gradually  accustomed  themselves  to  their  new 
surroundings,  adapted  themselves  to  the  ways  of  their 
Yankee  neighbors,  and  are  now  successfully  pursuing  their 
new  vocation.  The  friendship  and  advice  of  these  neigh 
bors  help  them  at  critical  moments,  and  it  was  the  children 
who  in  many  instances  threw  the  parents  together,  for  the 
Jewish  children  soon  learned  to  know  their  schoolmates  and 
formed  friendships  which  grew  until  they  included  the 
parents. 

Dairy  farming  is  the  occupation  of  most  of  the  New  Eng 
land  settlers.  It  is  peculiarly  adapted  to  their  land  and  has 
been  productive  of  greater  profit  than  market  gardening  or 
fruit  growing.  In  dairy  farming  but  little  of  the  fertility 
of  the  soil  is  sold  off  the  farm.  The  comparatively  large 
number  of  cattle  and  the  feeding  material  purchased  make 
possible  a  more  thorough  manuring  of  the  land  than  would 
be  practicable  with  the  same  expenditure  in  any  other  kind 
of  farming.  As  a  result  of  this  the  New  England  farms  are 
being  improved  gradually,  and  are  growing  more  productive 
from  year  to  year.  Moreover  dairy  products  find  in  New 
England  a  ready  sale  at  good  prices,  and  thus  yield  to  the 
farmer  almost  immediate  cash  returns.  The  Jewish  farm 
ers  utilize  the  large  markets  of  Hartford,  New  London,  and 


390  EURAL  SETTLEMENTS 

Norwich  for  cream  and  butter.  Large  quantities  of  milk 
are  sold  at  the  creameries  in  Colchester  and  Chesterfield. 
The  former  is  a  very  important  milk  centre  and  is  situated 
at  the  end  of  a  short  branch  of  the  air  line  division  of  the 
New  York,  New  Haven  and  Hartford  Road,  and  is  about 
three  miles  from  Turnerville,  on  the  main  line.  Colchester 
has  a  separating  plant  which  offers  very  good  prices  for 
milk.  From  3  to  3%  cents  per  quart  are  paid  there,  and  in 
the  large  market  it  is  sold  according  to  the  market  quota 
tions. 

The  Jewish  farmers  realize  the  value  of  modern  meth 
ods.  They  are  careful,  in  many  instances,  to  select  the  very 
best  cows  that  they  can  get.  They  have  built  a  number  of 
silos  for  the  preservation  of  corn.  They  follow  the  instruc 
tions  of  their  experiment  station  officers  in  regard  to  the 
compounding  of  rations  for  their  cattle.  On  many  farms 
the  equipment  is  still  incomplete,  but  the  officers  of  the 
Jewish  Agricultural  and  Aid  Society  have  taken  an  active 
interest  in  the  affairs  of  the  Jewish  farmers  and  are  not 
backward  in  extending  aid  and  encouragement  where  they 
are  needed  most. 

Like  the  colonists  in  South  'Jersey,  the  Jewish  farmers  in 
New  England  had  various  occupations  in  Europe.  Most  of 
them,  however,  were  either  artisans  or  petty  traders.  Men 
with  large  families  were  more  certain  of  success,  for  at  the 
beginning  at  least  they  were  obliged  to  look  for  a  part  of 
their  income  to  the  mill  or  factory.  The  enthusiasm  that 
marked  the  early  days  of  the  South  Jersey  colonies  was  not 
lacking  here.  The  farmers  went  to  work  and  bore  their 
hardships  bravely.  They  seemed  to  have  imbibed  something 
of  the  spirit  of  their  Yankee  neighbors,  for  they  show  much 
self-reliance  and  independence  of  character.  In  their  reli 
gious  life  they  are  as  a  rule  orthodox  and  provide  for  the 
instruction  of  their  children  in  Hebrew  and  Jewish  history. 
There  is  also  a  measure  of  social  life,  particularly  during 
the  holidays.  Their  relations  with  one  another  are  friendly, 
and  they  represent  on  the  whole  an  intelligent  portion  of 
the  Russian  immigrants. 

Most  of  the  farms  were  purchased  by  the  settlers  at  two- 
thirds  the  original  costs  of  the  buildings.  The  purchase 
price  varied  from  $1,200  to  $1,500  with  an  immediate  cash 
payment  of  one-third  to  one-half  the  purchase  price.  The 
nouses  are  in  most  cases  frame  buildings,  and  the  farms  are 
supplied  with  the  necessary  outbuildings.  The  land  is  roll- 


EASTERN  STATES  391 

ing  or  hilly,  and  the  soil  is  gravelly  or  loamy.  Although 
the  most  important  branch  of  agriculture  that  is  followed  is 
dairy  farming,  they  also  engage  in  truck  farming,  grain 
growing,  poultry  keeping,  and  fruit  growing.  A  beginning 
has  been  made  in  the  construction  and  management  of  green 
houses.  A  number  of  farmers  have  purchased  incubators, 
and  are  raising  chickens  for  the  market.  Like  their  Yankee 
neighbors,  they  derive  an  important  part  of  their  income 
from  summer  boarders.  Many  Jewish  people  from  New 
York  and  Boston  prefer  to  board  with  Jewish  farmers  in 
New  England,  because  of  the  kosher  board  that  can  be  se 
cured.  This  "  agricultural  industry,"  if  it  may  be  called 
such,  offers  the  additional  advantage  to  the  farmers  that 
they  have  a  home  market  for  the  products  of  their  farms. 
The  canning  of  tomatoes  has  also  been  started  at  Colchester, 
and  gives  promise  of  greater  development.  The  Jewish 
farmers  of  New  England  utilize  their  grapes  for  wine  mak 
ing  and  in  some  cases  earn  a  little  money  in  lumbering  and 
the  cutting  of  railroad  ties.  The  children  of  a  number  of 
the  farmers  work  in  the  small  mills  near  Oakdale,  Norwich, 
and  Palmerton,  and  thus  contribute  something  to  the  re 
sources  of  their  families.  Yet  the  New  England  farmers  de 
pend  upon  the  factories  but  to  a  limited  extent,  and  these 
do  not  play  the  important  part  in  their  life  that  they  do  in 
the  life  of  the  South  Jersey  colonists. 

There  are  probably  about  400  Jewish  farmers  in  the  New 
England  states.  The  farms  average  about  100  acres  each, 
and  the  total  acreage  is  therefore  about  40,000.  On  the 
average  there  are  probably  ten  head  of  cattle  on  each  farm, 
and  enough  horses  to  do  the  farm  work.  The  Jewish  farm 
ers  are  gradually  paying  off  their  obligations  and  improv 
ing  their  holdings.  Their  future  in  New  England  has  much 
promise. 


(B)  WESTERN  STATES 

In  describing  the  condition  of  the  Jewish  farmers  located 
in  the  north-western  states  of  the  Union  as  observed  by  the 
writer,  who,  accompanied  by  Mr.  William  Kahn,  of  the  Jew 
ish  Agricultural  and  Industrial  Aid  Society,  of  New  York, 
visited  the  homes  of  a  large  number  of  these  people  during 
the  summer  of  1903,  more  than  a  mere  narrative  to  gratify 
the  curious  is  intended.  How  the  Jew  lives  and  works  as  an 
agriculturalist  in  America  must  be  of  the  deepest  interest  to 
every  well-meaning  and  earnest  Jew  and  Jewess.  For,  how 
ever  favorable  the  "  chances  "  city  life  offers  to  the  poor 
'Jewish  immigrant  from  Russia  and  Roumania  to  rise  from 
a  peddler  to  an  importer  or  from  a  sweat-shop  operator  to 
a  manufacturer,  it  is  the  farm  that  holds  the  true  key  to  a 
difficult  situation.  Less  than  a  decade  or  two  ago  it  seems 
to  have  been  a  conviction  with  even  the  best  of  our  people 
that  the  ci£y.--efeas4ar_ger  opportimities_Jor  the  jmmigrant 
<j[ew.  Here,  it  was  held^  he  can  lift  himself  into  prominence 
by^means  of  the  industries.  The  educational  institutions, 
too,  it  was  held,  will  develop  the  talents  of  his  children ;  his 
son  may  become  a  lawyer,  physician,  or  a  professor;  his 
daughter  may  attend  the  university  and  become  learned  in 
the  classics,  or  she  may  become  an  artist,  a  vocalist,  or  a 
pianist.  \  These  '  *  chances  ' '  are  good  in  the  city,  while  on 
the  farnhthe  Jew  will  drop  out  from  the  world's  noticing 
eye  amrte^omT,"^l)e^  ^producer  of  the  plain  Irish  potato 
and  the  artless  yellow  pumpkin.  \  Such  argument  seems  to 
have  been  convincing  to  many  notrvery  long  ago.  But  there 
is  "  not  the  ill  wind  which  blows  no  man  good."  The 
heavier  Jewish  immigration  to  the  United  States  caused  a 
wiser  attitude.  The  newer  condition  as  it  developed  among 
the  Jews  living  in  the  congested  quarters  in  the  larger  cities 
has  taken  off  the  sharp  edge  of  the  ' '  chance-in-the-city  ' '  ar 
gument  and  the  advisability  of  having  the  Jewish  poor  ap 
ply  themselves  to  agriculture  is  no  longer  questioned  by  any 
thinking  Jew. 

But  while  the  advisability  of  bringing  the  Jew  to  farm- 

392 


WESTERN  STATES  393 

ing  is  generally  acceded,  the  feasibility  of  such  a  movement 
is  still  an  open  question  with  many.  Can  and  will  the  Jew 
make  a  successful  farmer  is  a  question  of  more  than  passing 
concern  to  those  who,  much  as  they  would  assist  in  the  move 
ment,  cannot  bring  themselves  to  believe  that  the  Jew  is 
capable  of  making  farming  a  successful  calling.  It  is, 
therefore,  for  the  purpose  of  forcing  home  the  conviction 
of  the  Jew's  willingness  and  ability  to  till  the  soil  that  the 
following  facts  and  figures  concerning  the  Jewish  farmers 
are  given  publicity.  What  is  told  of  conditions  is  the  state 
ment  of  an  eye-witness,  what  is  drawn  and  concluded  by  in 
ference  is  based  on  years  of  experience  in  the  work  of  assist 
ing  Jewish  poor  to  make  farming  their  calling,  and  what  is 
given  as  impressions  is  the  result  of  careful  study  and  close 
observation  among  these  farmers  in  their  own  homes  and 
surroundings. 

Before  relating,  however,  what  was  seen  and  learned  on 
these  visits  to  the  various  farmers  in  Dakota,  Wisconsin, 
Michigan,  Indiana  and  Illinois,  it  is  deemed  proper  —  and 
it  will  surely  prove  news  to  many  —  to  state  that,  most  con-  , 
servatively  estimated,  there  are  more  than  one  thousand  \/ 
Jewish  farmers  located  in  the  territory  west  of  the  Alle- 
ghenys  and  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  With  nearly 
three  hundred  of  these  Jewish  farmers  the  Jewish  Agricul 
turists'  Aid  Society  of  America  (whose  office  is  in  Chi 
cago)  is  more  or  less  in  constant  touch.  These  farmers  are 
engaged  exclusively  in  agriculture;  no  other  industry  is 
followed  by  them  save  what  comes  within  the  sphere  of  their 
calling.  They  are  actively  engaged  in  all  forms  of  the 
work ;  from  gardening  and  dairy  farming  near  the  cities  in 
Illinois  to  wheat  farming  and  cattle  raising  in  the  Dakotas ; 
from  truck  farming  in  Florida  to  diversified  farming  in  In 
diana  and  Wisconsin;  from  fruit  farming  in  Michigan  to 
cotton  raising  in  Oklahoma.  They  were  all,  at  the  outset, 
unfamiliar  with  the  work  of  farming  as  it  is  carried  on  in 
this  country,  but,  thanks  to  their  untiring  energy,  they  have 
succeeded  —  some  most  admirably,  others  quite  satisfac 
torily  —  in  their  undertaking.  There  can  be  little  doubt  as 
to  the  ultimate  success  of  these  willing  workers,  among 
whom,  more  than  anything  else,  is  manifest  a  spirit  of  great 
contentment  and  a  true  delight  in  their  new  calling. 

After  a  forty  hours'  trip  from  Chicago  by  way  of  St. 
Paul  and  Bismarck  to  Wilton,  North  Dakota,  we  left  the 
railroad  and  started  on  a  tour  through  the  country.  Going 


394  RURAL  SETTLEMENTS 

eighteen  miles  northwest  of  Wilton  we  came  to  the  farm  of 
L.  C.  This  farmer  is  one  of  the  latest  arrivals  in  North 
Dakota,  he  having  come  out  from  New  York  with  his  wife 
and  eight  children  at  the  end  of  last  year.  He  is  located, 
like  all  our  farmers  in  Dakota,  on  a  homestead  of  160  acres, 
and  though  this  is  his  first  summer  on  a  farm  he  has  made 
considerable  improvement  on  the  place.  He  has  broken  35 
acres  of  land,  32  of  which  he  has  put  in  flax  and  the  balance 
in  corn,  potatoes  and  garden  stuff.  He  has  the  assistance 
of  a  son,  eighteen  years  of  age,  and  a  younger  daughter, 
who,  like  Whittier  's  * '  Maud  Muller  ' '  does  not  shun  raking 
the  hay  on  a  hot  summer  day.  On  our  arrival  at  the  farm 
we  found  these  two  young  people  in  the  field  "  haying  "; 
the  son  on  the  mower,  and  the  girl  on  the  hay  rack,  and  they 
were  at  it  with  a  readiness  as  if  they  had  been  accustomed  to 
it  from  early  childhood.  The  father  was  busy  putting  a 
curbing  in  the  well,  and  was  assisted  by  one  of  his  younger 
children.  Another  one  of  his  boys  was  herding  the  cows. 
The  best  help,  however,  this  man  has  is  his  good  wife.  Her 
hand  is  visible  in  every  part  of  the  home.  The  modest 
dwelling  they  erected  was  yet  incompleted.  It  was  in  a 
condition  to  afford  shelter  for  the  summer  but  not  for  win 
ter.  In  spite  of  its  incompleteness  the  house  was  arranged 
to  afford  the  best  comfort  to  the  large  family  of  ten  people 
that  occupies  it.  Both  husband  and  wife  are  appreciative 
of  the  situation.  They  know  that  there  is  great  work  before 
them,  but  they  are  ready  for  it,  and  the  satisfaction  they 
expressed  at  having  reached  even  this  state  in  their  under 
taking,  their  hopefulness  for  the  future,  and  the  cheerful 
ness  with  which  they  and  their  children  are  at  their  work, 
augurs  well  for  their  success.  They  are  the  people  who  in 
deed  will  succeed.  An  incident  which  occurred  while  we 
were  at  the  house  of  this  family  deserves  special  mention. 
It  illustrates  the  good  quality  of  the  people;  a  quality  es 
sential  in  the  character  of  those  Jews  who  desire  to  build  up 
their  homes  and  establish  themselves  as  agriculturists.  The 
C.  family,  prior  to  making  their  homestead  entry,  conducted 
a  grocery  store  on  the  East  Side  in  New  York  City.  Among 
the  relics  of  that  time  is  a  photograph  showing  the  whole 
family  arrayed  in  all  the  pomp  and  finery  becoming  the 
position  of  an  East  Side  grocery  merchant.  On  that  photo 
graph  the  father  appears  with  a  heavy  watch  chain,  the 
mother  with  her  earrings  and  finger  rings,  while  the  chil 
dren  are  bedecked  with  laces  and  ribbons  in  great  profusion. 


WESTERN  STATES  395 

Noticing  this  family  picture  we  ventured  to  remark  on  the 
fine  appearance  of  the  family,  and  suggested  that  here  on 
the  farm  such  finery  will  hardly  be  appreciated,  as  there 
are  so  few  people  to  notice  it.  In  answer  to  our  remark  the 
woman  said :  i '  We  are  glad  we  shall  not  need  it.  There  in 
New  York  we  worked  for  the  dress  and  nothing  more,  here 
we  dress  to  work  and  work  for  a  home." 

About  four  miles  from  this  farm  are  located  the  home 
steads  of  T.  and  I.  K.,  father  and  son.  They  entered  on 
their  homesteads  a  few  months  before  our  visit.  They  also 
came  from  New  York,  where  the  other  members  of 
the  family  —  mother  and  children  —  were  left.  Hav 
ing  come  to  their  farms  at  the  early  spring,  they 
had  to  go  to  land-breaking  and  hence  could  not  build 
their  home  so  as  to  enable  them  to  bring  the  family 
to  the  farm.  On  our  arrival  at  their  "  shack,"  we  found 
them  preparing  for  haying.  They  had  built  a  stable,  dug  a 
well  and  cellar,  and  the  material  for  their  dwelling  was 
on  the  place  ready  to  be  put  up  as  soon  as  time  would  per 
mit  them  to  do  so.  In  the  field  they  had  done  good  work. 
They  had  broken  40  acres  of  land,  seeded  it  in  flax,  which 
was  in  an  excellent  state.  The  "  breaking  "  which  was 
done  by  the  son,  an  ex-cloak  maker,  showed  that  it  did  not 
take  the  young  man  much  time  to  learn  how  to  guide  the 
plow.  The  acreage  worked  indicated  that  the  work,  so  well 
done,  was  accomplished  in  a  reasonably  quick  time.  Speak 
ing  with  this  family  of  the  change  they  had  made  and  of  the 
many  hardships  they  had  already  endured,  and  which  they 
will  still  have  to  endure  before  they  will  be  able  to  have 
their  family  comfortably  housed  on  the  farm,  they  ex 
pressed  their  absolute  confidence  in  the  future,  asserted  that 
they  will  shun  no  work  and  mind  no  difficulty  in  carrying 
out  their  intention  of  making  the  homesteads  in  reality  what 
they  were  now  but  in  name. 

From  here  we  drove  eight  miles,  south  by  east,  passing 
the  homesteads  of  J.  M.  and  M.  Z.,  whom  we  expected  to 
meet  at  the  farm  of  M.  brothers,  the  place  of  our  destina 
tion.  The  M.  brothers'  farm,  with  its  large  dwelling  house, 
stables  and  outhouses,  its  live  stock  of  nine  horses,  five  cows, 
and  as  many  calves,  makes  an  attractive  showing.  The 
dwelling  house  is  situated  on  a  somewhat  elevated  place  and 
is  visible  from  quite  a  distance.  As  we  drew  near  we 
noticed  the  cattle  in  the  pasture,  the  light  green  fields  of 
young  grain  and  the  darker  green  of  the  young  flax  stretch- 


396  EURAL  SETTLEMENTS 

ing  before  us  in  large  patches,  the  whole  forming  a  picture 
indicating  life,  human  energy,  and  intelligent  activity. 

The  brothers  M.  are  Roumanians  who  came  to  this  coun 
try  within  the  last  few  years.  One  of  them  came  to 
America  during  the  early  part  of  1899,  and  the  other  two 
followed  him  a  year  later.  To  a  limited  extent  they  fol 
lowed  agriculture  in  their  native  home,  but,  here  in  America 
they,  like  most  of  the  newcomers  from  Russia,  Roumania 
and  Galicia,  went  to  the  city  —  Chicago,  in  this  instance  — 
where  they  found  the  usual  employment  in  the  sweat-shop 
and  in  the  picture  frame  factory.  Accustomed  to  rural  life 
and  to  work  in  the  open  air  they  could  not  well  bear  the 
change  the  new  condition  imposed  upon  them.  Especially 
did  the  wife  of  the  oldest  brother  suffer  by  this  change. 
She  could  not  endure  the  life  in  the  congested  quarters  in 
the  city  and  fell  sick.  Learning  of  the  work  of  the  Jewish 
Agriculturists'  Aid  Society  of  America,  these  people,  to 
gether  with  Max  Z.,  a  brother  of  the  wife  of  one  of  the  M.  's 
and  a  young  man  of  exceptionally  fine  physique,  made  ap 
plication  for  a  loan  to  enable  them  to  take  up  the  work  of 
farming.  Their  application  received  favorable  considera 
tion  at  the  hands  of  the  directors  of  the  society  and  loans 
aggregating  the  sum  of  $2,000  were  granted  to  them.  They 
located  on  homesteads  in  Burleigh  County,  North  Dakota, 
and  though  this  was  their  first  season  on  their  homesteads 
they  were  already  well  established.  They  have  over  eighty 
acres  under  cultivation  on  their  various  homesteads.  Most 
of  the  acreage  is  seeded  in  flax  with  every  prospect  of  a 
good  yield.  On  one  of  the  homesteads  they  built  a  com 
modious  six-room  house,  on  the  other  a  large  barn,  and  with 
the  smaller  buildings  on  the  other  homesteads,  cellar,  stable 
and  sheds,  their  improvements  in  this  respect  represent  a 
value  of  twelve  hundred  dollars  or  more.  Their  live  stock 
is  worth  more  than  one  thousand  dollars,  and  with  wagons, 
harness,  buggy  and  other  implements  they  offer  ample  se 
curity  for  the  money  loaned  to  them.  More  than  this 
security,  however,  must  be  counted  their  eagerness  and 
ability  to  improve  their  estates. 

Our  next  stopping  place  was  at  the  farm  of  V.  B.  We 
arrived  here  after  dark  and  were  cordially  greeted  by  Mr. 
and  Mrs.  B.,  who  expressed  their  delight  at  the  opportunity 
of  having  us  stay  at  their  home  over  night.  Entering  the 
house  we  found  that  our  hosts  had  already  some  company. 
Two  boys,  sons  of  one  of  the  Jewish  farmers  in  the  neigh- 


WESTERN  STATES  397 

borhood,  were  here.  Their  father  had  purchased  a  cow  and 
a  calf  from  a  farmer  a  few  miles  away,  and  the  boys  were 
on  their  way  home  with  the  purchase.  They  had  yet  about 
six  miles  to  their  home,  and  turned  in  here  for  the  night,  ex 
pecting  to  start  again  on  their  journey  with  the  break  of 
day.  Expressing  our  doubt  as  to  the  ability  of  our  hosts  to 
shelter  so  many  guests  in  their  home,  we  were  assured  that 
there  was  plenty  of  room  for  all.  It  was,  indeed,  pleasing 
to  note  with  what  cheerfulness  the  hospitality  was  extend 
ed  ;  a  cheerfulness  which  partook  of  a  sense  of  thankfulness 
to  Divine  Providence  for  having  granted  the  blessings  that 
made  possible  the  hospitality. 

For  the  first  three  years  on  their  homesteads  the  oc 
cupants  lived  in  a  sod-house  erected  by  their  own  hands, 
which  afforded  them  a  mere  shelter.  They  did  bide  their 
time,  and  in  1902  were  able  to  build  for  themselves  a  modest 
but  comfortable  home.  They  look  with  just  pri4e  on  the 
work  they  have  accomplished.  They  have  one  of  the  finest 
quarter-sections  in  the  township.  Sixty-five  acres  of  this 
they  have  under  cultivation.  They  have  eight  milch-cows, 
three  heifers  and  calves,  five  horses  and  a  colt,  besides  all 
the  machinery  and  implements.  They  are  indebted,  all 
told,  to  the  amount  of  a  little  over  $1,000,  but  their  estate 
is  worth  to-day  three  times  that  amount,  and  the  money  they 
owe  is  well  secured.  Five  years  ago  these  people  arrived 
here  in  Chicago  from  Russia.  The  man  went  to  work  in  a 
sweat-shop,  earning  from  six  to  seven  dollars  a  week.  He 
soon  learned  that  the  conditions  in  the  city  were  not  prom 
ising  for  him,  and  he  applied  for  a  loan  in  order  to  take  up 
a  homestead  of  free  government  land.  At  first  a  loan  of 
$600  was  granted  to  him,  and  with  that  —  not  having  a  dol 
lar  of  his  own  —  he  started  at  his  venture.  The  family 
went  through  considerable  hardship,  but  were  not  daunted. 

An  object  lesson  of  how  the  Jew  will  live  as  a  farmer  was 
given  through  a  slight  incident  which  happened  while  we 
were  at  this  farm.  It  has  always  been  maintained  by  the 
writer  that  the  Jew,  with  his  high  regard  for  life  and  his 
indomitable  ambition  to  make  life  bright  and  worthy,  will, 
when  he  takes  to  farming,  broaden  the  view  of  the  agricul 
turists  and  do  much  towards  dispelling  the  odium  which 
hangs  on  to  the  "  hay-seed  "  by  reason  of  his  proverbial 
narrow-mindedness.  While  at  the  breakfast  table  in  the 
home  of  our  friend  B.,  the  hostess  waited  on  us  and  talked 
to  us  of  the  future  plans  of  the  family.  Among  others  she 


398  RURAL  SETTLEMENTS 

stated  that,  if  the  crop  turned  out  as  expected,  she  could 
go  the  coming  fall  to  Bismarck  to  have  a  tooth  fixed.  Dur 
ing  the  afternoon  we  had  occasion  to  visit  the  home  of  a 
non-Jewish  farmer  with  whom  we  had  some  dealings  in  the 
past.  This  farmer  is  an  old  settler  and  quite  well-to-do. 
As  we  drove  into  his  yard  we  pulled  up  before  a  low  shed 
covered  with  straw,  the  house  of  this  farmer.  We  found 
that  our  man  was  not  at  home.  His  wife  came  to  the  door, 
barefooted,  and  as  she  spoke  one  could  not  fail  to  notice  the 
exceedingly  bad  condition  of  her  teeth.  This  made  a  de 
cided  impression,  and  a  thought  not  unfamiliar  came  for 
cibly  upon  us.  Here  was  an  old  settled  farmer  whose  pos 
sessions  were  worth  ten  times  as  much  as  those  of  his  Jewish 
neighbor,  housed  in  a  one-room  shed,  compared  with  which 
the  house  of  our  friend  B.  is  a  veritable  palace.  The  Jew 
ish  farmer's  wife  having  one  defective  tooth  is  ready  to 
have  it  attended  to,  while  the  wife  of  the  other,  if  not 
wholly  ignorant  of  the  existence  of  the  dentist,  seems  never 
to  have  thought  of  availing  herself  of  the  good  service  of 
that  individual.  What  a  difference  in  the  conception  of 
life.  Oh,  for  the  day  when  the  Jew  will  again  be  a  farmer  ! 
The  Jewish  seer's  dream  of  beautiful  homes,  where  every 
man  will  dwell  peacefully  and  contentedly  under  his  own 
vine  and  fig-tree,  can  best  be  realized  through  the  Jewish 
conception  of  life  and  by  the  Jewish  tiller  of  the  soil.  In 
more  than  one  way  has  the  Jew  brought  home  to  the  world 
the  lessons  of  life,  teaching  the  way  to  sweeten  and  to 
beautify  it. 

From  the  Y.  B.  farm  we  went  to  the  house  of  H.  B. 
This  man  has  the  distinction  of  being  the  first  settler  in 
his  township.  He  came  here  from  Chicago  four  years  ago, 
and  pitched  his  tent  in  the  open  country,  several  miles  away 
from  any  neighbor.  He  had  the  choice  of  the  best  lands 
and  he  selected  a  fine  homestead.  He  was,  however,  not 
long  without  neighbors.  Within  less  than  two  years  the 
homesteads  in  his  township  were  taken,  and  to-day  there  is 
not  an  acre  of  free  government  land  left  unoccupied  in  his 
vicinity.  We  found  B.  in  the  field  cutting  hay.  He  was  on 
the  mower  looking  every  inch  a  farmer.  There  was  nothing 
about  him  which  would  denote  the  uninitiated  worker. 
There  was  a  fine  span  of  horses  before  the  machine,  har 
nessed  after  the  most  approved  farmer's  style.  The  mower, 
too,  though  four  years  old,  was  in  excellent  condition — 
the  whole  outfit  equal  to  any  that  can  be  found  among  the 


WESTERN  STATES  399 

Swedish,  Norwegian,  and  German  farmers  in  the  vicinity. 
We  drove  along  his  farm  looking  at  the  crops.  He  had 
nearly  one  hundred  acres  under  cultivation,  forty  of  which 
were  seeded  in  wheat  and  spelt,  though  with  a  poor  pros 
pect  of  any  yield.  He  had,  however,  nigh  fifty  acres  in 
flax  which  is  in  excellent  condition.  He  had  also  a  few 
acres  in  corn,  and  oats,  besides  potatoes,  beans,  beets,  etc. 
His  live-stock,  consisting  of  seven  horses  and  twelve  head 
of  horn  cattle,  we  also  found  to  be  in  splendid  condition, 
and  it  alone  easily  represents  a  value  fully  covering  the 
amount  of  the  indebtedness  of  this  farm. 

In  the  extreme  northern  portion  of  McLean  County,  in 
township  150,  Range  78,  are  located  sixteen  Jewish  home 
steaders.  The  homesteads  are  all  within  a  radius  of  about 
twelve  miles,  the  nearest  being  about  eight  miles  from  Bal- 
four.  Our  first  visit  was  to  the  homesteads  of  the  R.  family. 
This  family,  consisting  of  father,  two  married  sons  and  a 
son-in-law,  have  entered  on  four  homesteads,  two  of  which 
are  located  together  while  the  others  are  about  two  miles 
apart.  Considering  the  short  time  they  had  been  on  their 
respective  homesteads — having  filed  their  entries  the  winter 
before — the  improvements  they  made  bear  evidence  not  only 
of  their  willingness  to  work  as  farmers  but,  what  is  more 
important,  of  their  ability  to  do  so.  They  built  a  large 
barn  which  was  serving  them  as  shelter  until  the  house  un 
der  construction  would  be  ready  for  them.  They  also  erect 
ed  stables  for  their  cattle,  dug  wells,  constructed  cellars  and 
made  the  necessary  fences  around  their  yards.  They  had 
nearly  one  hundred  acres  under  cultivation,  eighty  of  which 
were  seeded  in  flax,  and,  they  had,  at  the  time  of  our  visit, 
made  nearly  forty  tons  of  hay.  Their  live  stock  consisted 
of  eight  horses,  three  cows,  two  heifers  and  three  calves. 
We  stayed  for  more  than  a  day  and  had  an  opportunity  to 
observe  the  farmers  at  their  work.  The  favorable  impres 
sion  which  we  had  of  these  people  was  strengthened  by 
this  observation. 

From  here  we  went  about  ten  miles  south  where,  in 
township  149,  we  came  to  the  homestead  of  G.  This  settler 
had  come  out  from  New  York  with  his  wife  and  eight  chil 
dren  during  the  fall  of  1902.  He  was  assisted  by  the  Jew 
ish  Agricultural  and  Industrial  Aid  Society  and  established 
himself  upon  a  fine  tract  of  fertile  land.  Though  about 
eighteen  miles  away  from  the  railroad,  the  homestead  has 
been  wisely  chosen,  it  being  well  watered  and  free  from 


400  RURAL  SETTLEMENTS 

stony  and  alcoholated  patches  so  often  found  in  the  prairies 
of  the  Dakotas.  G.  has  built  for  himself  a  comfortable 
dwelling,  a  good  barn  and  stable,  and  has  broken  over 
forty  acres  of  land  since  he  settled  upon  his  homestead. 
He  has  four  horses,  two  cows  and  two  calves.  He  has  the 
assistance  of  his  eldest  son,  seventeen  years  of  age,  and 
of  a  good  wife  who  looks  after  the  comfort  of  her  husband 
and  children.  About  a  mile  away  to  the  west  is  located 
a  sister  of  Mr.  G.,  a  widow  with  her  three  children.  In 
this  vicinity  also  are  located  two  young  men,  who,  not 
being  able  to  find  any  free  government  land  nearer  their 
own  homes,  came  out  further  west  and  located  in  McLean 
County.  We  found  them  here  on  their  claims  engaged  in 
hay-making,  but  who  expected  by  the  following  year  to 
begin  the  improvements  on  their  homesteads  as  required 
by  the  law.  In  this  connection  it  is  also  worthy  of  men 
tion  that  six  more  young  men,  sons  of  Jewish  farmers  of 
Ramsey  County,  had  the  previous  spring  gone  as  far  west 
as  Ward  County,  and  located  as  homesteaders.  The  action 
of  these  young  men  is  a  telling  answer  to  the  often  repeated 
question,  "  Will  the  sons  of  our  Jewish  settlers  stay 
farmers  ?"  We  had  occasion  to  speak  with  these  young 
men  and  from  all  we  could  ascertain  we  are  convinced 
that  it  would  require  very  strong  inducements  to  bring 
them  to  live  in  the  city.  They  love  the  country  and  their 
chosen  vocation,  and  are  on  their  respective  homesteads  to 
stay  and  work  as  agriculturists. 

Another  young  man  broke  fifty-four  acres  of  land  dur 
ing  last  spring.  He  also  is  the  son  of  a  farmer  located  in 
Ramsey  County.  The  boy  was  about  eight  years  of  age 
when  he  came  with  his  father  to  the  farm.  He  has  grown 
up  at  the  work,  and  has  now  filed  an  entry  for  a  homestead 
of  his  own  in  McLean  County.  He  came  to  his  homestead 
equipped  with  the  necessary  implements  and  live  stock, 
all  of  which  are  in  first-class  shape  and  condition,  and 
second  to  none  that  can  be  found  in  charge  of  any  young 
farmer  in  the  state.  A  third  Jewish  young  boy,  who  two 
years  ago,  was  working  in  a  factory  in  Chicago,  broke  forty 
acres  of  land  during  the  spring.  This  is  excellent  work 
for  a  novice.  Undoubtedly  the  good  example  of  his  young 
friends,  their  valuable  advice,  and  their  encouraging 
words,  have  contributed  no  little  to  the  success  of  this 
novice  farmer.  Seeing  these  three  young  men  together, 
one  could  not  help  being  thoroughly  impressed  with  the 


WESTERN  STATES  401 

absurdity  of  the  usual  saw  that  the  Jew  cannot  or  will  not 
make  a  farmer.  It  would  be  hard  indeed  to  find  in  any 
farmer  community  three  young  men  better  equipped  and 
more  willing  to  do  the  work  and  lead  the  life  of  the  farmer. 

From  McLean  County  we  went  by  way  of  Minot  down 
to  St.  Paul,  and  from  there  to  Northern  Wisconsin  where 
we  visited  some  of  our  older  settlers  in  that  vicinity.  We 
have  here  some  Jewish  farmers  who  have,  so  to  speak, 
grown  up  with  the  country;  having  purchased  wild  lands 
about  ten  years  ago  when  the  country  was  but  very  spar 
ingly  settled.  Unfamiliar  with  the  work  they  were  to  per 
form  and  unaccustomed  to  a  life  of  such  thorough  seclu 
sion  as  was  necessarily  theirs  in  this  new  country,  they 
endured  much  trial  and  privation.  However,  they  have 
suffered  and  labored  till  they  have  learned  and  succeeded, 
and  they  are  to-day  well  established  in  a  most  fertile  coun 
try,  surrounded  by  kind  and  pleasant  neighbors,  with  whom 
they  stand  on  an  equal  footing  as  self-respecting  produc 
ers.  A  more  contented  people  than  our  Jewish  farmers  in 
Burron  County,  Wisconsin,  will  be  hard  to  find  anywhere, 
and  their  contentment  is  well  founded. 

We  can  not  refrain  from  giving,  as  concisely  as  possible, 
the  story  of  one  of  our  families  located  in  this  vicinity. 
It  will  illustrate  the  possibilities  farming  holds  for  even 
the  poorest  among  the  poor,  and  will  also  demonstrate  the 
fact  that  the  means  applied  in  helping  the  Jewish  poor, 
ready  and  willing  to  work,  to  change  the  condition  from 
poverty  to  affluence  need  be  no  waste  of  money,  but  an 
interest-bearing  investment,  ample  and  well  secured.  Nine 
years  ago  the  family  in  question,  consisting  of  husband, 
wife,  and  six  children,  the  oldest  of  whom  was  a  boy  of 
thirteen  years  of  age,  lived  in  the  city  in  dire  poverty. 
The  husband  worked  in  a  factory,  earning  eight  dollars 
per  week  when  work  was  plentiful.  Through  sickness  in 
the  family  he  fell  back  in  paying  the  rent  for  his  house, 
and  within  less  than  a  year  the  family  was  evicted  three 
times.  With  the  assistance  of  the  Jewish  Agriculturists' 
Aid  Society  the  family  removed  from  the  city  to  the  farm. 
Eighty  acres  of  wild  land  were  purchased — title  being  taken 
in  the  man's  name — and  after  the  most  necessary  build 
ings  had  been  erected  on  the  premises,  a  few  implements 
and  some  live  stock  obtained,  the  family  was  indebted  to 
the  society  to  the  amount  of  over  $1,000.  After  the  first 
year  on  the  farm  our  friend  was  in  a  position  that  required 


402  EUEAL  SETTLEMENTS 

further  aid  from  the  society,  and  $200  more  was  invested 
to  enable  the  man  to  hold  out  on  the  farm.  After  the 
lapse  of  the  second  year  the  family  was  able  to  maintain 
itself,  but  was  unable  to  pay  even  the  few  dollars  of  taxes 
levied  against  the  property.  The  progress  the  people  made 
during  the  first  years  on  the  farm  was  slow.  The  work 
they  did  was  very  superficial.  No  one  could  handle  the 
tools  needed  on  such  a  farm  properly,  and  it  was  not  until 
after  the  family  had  been  five  years  on  the  farm  that  the 
society  felt  justified  in  purchasing  suitable  tools  and  plac 
ing  them  at  the  disposal  of  the  people.  All  these  years 
advances  of  various  sums  of  money  had  to  be  made  in  order 
to  help  them.  These  sums,  together  with  the  interest  of 
four  per  cent,  on  all  amounts  advanced,  brought  up  the 
indebtedness  of  this  family  to  nearly  $1,500.  During  this 
time,  while  the  process  of  turning  the  Jewish  family  who, 
like  other  Jewish  families,  were  not  farmers,  into  a  people 
of  the  soil,  not  a  few  insisted  that  the  money  was  wasted. 
In  fact,  a  gentleman  who,  four  years  ago,  went  out  west 
for  the  purpose  of  visiting  the  Jewish  farmers  and  inves 
tigating  their  condition,  and  who  also  visited  the  family 
in  question,  was  not  slow  in  asserting  that  the  society  is 
"  sinking  money  on  that  farm."  The  society,  however, 
disregarded  these  statements  and  went,  as  this  society 
always  does,  the  full  length  of  its  endeavor,  and  the  desired 
end  has  been  attained.  The  family  to-day  is  not  only  in  a 
position  to  make  the  annual  payments  on  its  indebtedness, 
but  has  already  an  equity  of  $1,500  in  the  estate.  Fully 
sixty  acres  of  the  wild  lands  have  been  cleared  and  the 
property,  with  the  buildings  on  it,  is  marketable  for  $2,500 
at  any  time.  This  price  has  been  set  upon  the  farm  by 
the  bank  at  Barron,  as  being  so  reasonable  that  a  purchaser 
for  the  property  can  be  had  for  it  at  a  day's  notice.  Be 
sides  the  equity  in  the  land,  the  family  has  six  cows,  four 
heifers,  four  steers,  three  calves,  a  fine  span  of  horses,  a 
farmer  wagon,  a  light  spring  wagon,  all  the  implements, 
among  which  there  is  a  mower,  a  rake  and  binder,  besides 
plows,  harrows,  etc.,  and  a  stump-puller  that  cost  over 
$100.  It  need  hardly  be  added  that  the  indebtedness  of 
the  family  is  now  well  secured  and  that  the  money  invested 
has  not  been  "  sunk,"  but  judiciously  and  advantageously 
applied.  It  should  be  stated,  however,  that  while  the  fam 
ily  having  learned  the  work,  is  now  in  a  position  to  pay 
back  what  has  been  advanced  on  its  account,  it  is  at  the 


WESTEEN  STATES  403 

same  time  improving  the  property  and  within  six  or  eight 
years,  when  the  full  amount  of  the  indebtedness  will  have 
been  paid,  will  be  in  possession  of  an  estate  of  from  six  to 
eight  thousand  dollars.  But  while  the  repayment  of  the 
investment  has  been  assured,  and  a  nice  little  estate  created 
for  that  poor  family,  the  Jewish  Agriculturists '  Aid  Society 
has  worked  for  an  aim  by  far  higher  than  the  one  to  which 
can  be  applied  a  money  standard.  The  people  have  been 
raised  from  a  condition  of  depending,  cringing  poverty 
to  the  dignified  state  of  self-reliant  manhood. 

Numerous  other  instances  could  be  given  showing  the  sat 
isfactory  progress  made  by  the  proteges  of  the  'Jewish  Agri 
culturists  '  Aid  Society  of  America.  However,  the  forego 
ing  descriptions  fully  suffice  to  point  the  great  lesson  which 
American  Jewry  must,  of  sheer  necessity,  learn  and  take  to 
heart.  Nor  can  it  be  overlooked  that  the  success  attained  by 
these  'Jewish  farmers  is  due  to  their  own  efforts  and  to  the 
readiness  and  willingness  with  which  they  undertook  the 
work.  True,  they  had  to  be  assisted  in  order  to  be  able  to 
take  up  the  work,  but  it  was  their  own  perseverance  and 
the  undaunted  courage  with  which  they  bore  the  hardships 
and  privations  incidental  to  the  undertaking  that  assured 
success.  To  say  that  the  Jew  is  no  farmer  is  simply  stating 
an  accepted  fact,  but  to  maintain  that  he  will  not  become  a 
successful  farmer  is  a  grave  error.  What  the  few  hundred 
Jews  have  attained  and  are  attaining  by  tilling  the  soil  in 
our  western  states,  many  thousands  of  the  Jewish  poor  that 
at  present  are  crowding  the  settlements  in  the  cities  will 
attain  if  they  are  given  the  chance.  This  fact  cannot  be 
too  strongly  emphasized.  In  the  face  of  existing  condi 
tions,  under  which  it  is  apparent  that  the  Jewish  centre  of 
gravity  is  shifting  from  the  Russian  Pale  of  Settlement  to 
America,  the  fact  that  the  Jew  will  successfully  work  as  an 
agriculturist  is  of  the  upmost  importance ;  it  is  the  essential 
in  the  proper  adjustment  of  the  social-economic  position  of 
the  Jew  in  America.  Whatever  might  have  been  the  politi 
cal,  economic,  and  religious  condition  of  the  Jew  in  the  old 
world,  here  in  America  his  complete  emancipation  can  be 
accomplished.  Nothing  will  aid  more  effectively  in  the 
consummation  of  this  end  than  his  employment  at  agri 
culture. 


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